Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 27

Assignment Example The exemption to this was for those at the constitution adoption time. The person should be at least 35 years of age. The person should have lived in the United States for at least fourteen years which do not have to be consequent. The president of the United States should probably not be a native born American, anyone who qualifies to be the president with good leadership can be a united sates president. Once the person has the qualities to lead the person is able to perform well the office work. There are those that are not born in the United States but have acquired citizenship in the states. They should also be allowed to feel as members of the states. Unelected justice should be allowed to make decisions on the personal held beliefs. When they are allowed to make the decision on the personal held beliefs since the beliefs can be true and bring change to the Supreme Court. This can bring less criticism of SCOTUS on its

The Process of Buying Your First Car Essay Example for Free

The Process of Buying Your First Car Essay The Process in Buying Your First Car The process of buying a brand new car can be a thrilling and exhilarating experience. Whether you are the first time car buyer looking for a reliable car to get you around town or a seasoned car buying expert, having the most up to date information and advice on the car buying process can be a definite advantage. Before you start looking to buy a car there are some things you will need to come to a decision on, such as, how much you can afford, whether to buy a new or used one and whether to pay cash or finance. First, you will need to decide what makes and models you are interested in, than do as much research on that type of auto as you can. Read reviews, consumer reports, ask your colleagues and friends, compare the optional equipment on each car, gather gas consumption data on the make and model you’re interested in. Examine the reliability ratings. Try to determine the maintenance costs and upkeep. Next, make a list of what you are looking for in a car. You should decide what color, appearance, style, vehicle type such as an SUV, sedan, or coupe. Choose whether an automatic or a manual transmission. What kind of gas mileage, the number of passenger seating, how much storage capacity? What is the reliability rating and what safety features are included with the auto. Then you should write down what it is you need in a car. Write the needs down first and then write down what you want. You can then prioritize your list by rank of importance. You should decide how much you are willing to pay for the car and do not deviate from it in any way. Decide whether you’re going to buy from a dealership, a private owner, or from an auction. Whether you have a trade-in, pay cash or finance? This can influence how much you are willing to pay. This could be what determines whether you buy a new or used, economy or luxury auto. Then narrow down your prospects to just a few to choose from. This will help you when you start looking for which dealerships to go to or advertisements to look at.

Graduation Speech -- Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

Ladies, gentlemen, parents, friends, family, staff, fellow students: Instead of taking up more time and reading my speech, it is available to you at http://www.olen’s_speech.com. Thank you. No, just kidding. But seriously folks... Today we are gathered here to celebrate our graduation from 12 long years of schooling. The education granted to us has been a privilege. One so graciously given to us by the citizens of our state, by our community, and by our parents. Today would not be possible without them. So far this evening we have looked back over the many past memories of our school years, remembering the good times and the bad, talking about the fun times, and so on. Now I would like to bring your focus to the present, and make a challenge for us for the future. The ceremony tonight is a very old and traditional one. In past, such a graduation meant not only the completion of a school career, but also a step into adulthood, into society, into the world. With this came many duties and responsibilities. This still applies to today. I’m sure many of you have heard the â€Å"going into the real world† speech as often quoted at high school graduations. You know, the one outlining the responsibilities of living on your own: cooking your own meals, balancing a checkbook, doing your own laundry, etc. Those are all well and good, but I’m talking about something a little different — responsibilities which go beyond those — the duties and rights of citizenship. Most of you are 18 already, or will be very soon, this is the age at which we can vote. As full citizens, it is now our right, and one which we should not let pass by. Our country is founded upon a democracy, and all democracies have one integral part: power b... ...hould in the future suffer what they did — to save freedom by bloodshed. We owe it to them to prevent wars, and to know, to understand, to teach, and to learn from our neighbors around the world, so that we might learn to live in peace. I am saying all of this tonight as a challenge to us as we venture forth this day. It is tempting for us as graduating seniors to treat this moment as one of reveling in our independence from high school. But this night is not just for the moment; it is also for our futures to look back to. Let’s celebrate the new privilege and responsibility which will be given to us as the class of the new millennium: to make it better than the past. For we should all be concerned with the future, because that is where we will all spend the rest of our lives. Thank you, everyone. And the best of luck to the future of the Class of 2006!

Aristotle and the Realm of Ethics

An examination of the Nichomacean Ethics is a task that contains the dichotomy of examining Aristotle’s simple, basic definitions along with the great complexity that is present in the underlying meaning behind the simplicity. Aristotle believed the ultimate goal of a human being was (is) to seek happiness and that only a virtuous person can truly achieve happiness.   The acceptance of these notions centers on the perception of the definitions of â€Å"virtue† and â€Å"happiness†. In Aristotle’s words, â€Å"We are now in a position to define the happy man as one who is active in accordance with complete virtue.†Ã‚   In other words, happiness without ethics is a near impossibility.. Eudemonia is a particularly complex situation when trying to understand the importance of it in regards to ethics because eudemonia generally refers to â€Å"happiness or pleasure.† Unfortunately, as the history of human behavior has shown, there will be those individuals who derive their happiness from actions that can be somewhat harmful to people. This type of behavior is, essentially, a pleasure principle based on perversion as opposed to one that is based on ethical behavior. So, it becomes important to separate Eudemonia from perversion or anti-social behavior in because, ultimately, while there may be some pleasure present in such conduct, this does not lead to overall happiness because there might exist a situation where such behavior leads a person down a road of a damaged life. Drugs may bring happiness, but this will exist only for the short term. Ultimately, they will lead to a damaged life that is devoid of happiness. As such, the happiness that Eudemonia  represents must not be transitional happiness, but happiness that is everlasting. In order to achieve this, the happiness must be based on ethical approaches to the pursuit of happiness. Ultimately, virtue breeds ethics and a disposition that is virtuous will further perpetuate ethical behavior. The reason for this is simple: a person who acts with purity can not act unethically as a lack of ethics and a preponderance of virtue are, essentially, mutually exclusive. A disposition of virtue will, in effect, cancel out any unethical or immoral behavior. Now, a virtuous person can also be a person who is rife with internal conflict. To seek happiness does not mean that the person will achieve happiness no matter how hard he or she tries. Often, there will be conflicted internal struggles that pit virtue, honesty and â€Å"the good life† against the frailties of the human psyche and soul. This internal conflict often will eat away at the ability to achieve happiness. However, if a person lives a life that is ethical, a great deal of conflict and stress will be removed from a person’s life. This, in turn, will allow the person a semblance of happiness or, at the very least, a lessoning of conflicting tensions that prey on the mind. Prescribing to a balance of ethics and happiness hinge on the need for virtuous actions and, while this is not possible all the time, it is possible a great deal of the time and can be achieved if an individual concentrates on it enough. This is a core tenant of Aristotle’s principles of ethics, ethical behavior and virtue.                                 

Hrm- Evaluation of Training

International Research Journal of Finance and Economics ISSN 1450-2887 Issue 37 (2010)  © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2010 http://www. eurojournals. com/finance. htm Methods of Evaluation: Training Techniques Mahmoud M. AL-Ajlouni Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Business Administration Irbid National University, Irbid Jordan E-mail: [email  protected] com Salah M. H Athamneh Assistant Professor, Deptt. Humanities Jordan University of Science and technology Irbid, Jordan Abdulnaser A.Jaradat Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Marketing Irbid National University, Irbid, Jordan Abstract The Evaluation of any training programme has certain aims to fulfill. These are concerned with the determination of change in the organizational behavior and the change needed in the organizational structure. Hence evaluation of any training program must inform us whether the training programme has been able to deliver the goals and objectives in terms of cost incurred and benefits achieved.The analysis of the information is the concluding part of any evaluation programme. The analysis of data should be summarized and then compared with the data of other training programmes similar nature. On the basis of these comparisons, problems and strength should be identified which would help the trainer in this future training programmes, to stop short of completion of the training systems design methodology, by avoiding the evaluation,our training effectiveness is reneging on our commitment to our students.The future requires more precise, reliable evaluation strategies, we like to think of training effectiveness evaluation in the same way that we think of surveillance tests in the plant, we perform training effectiveness evaluations to ensure our programmes work effectively. Keywords: Training Programme, On –the-Job-Training, Off-the-Job-Training, Training Techniques,Evaluation Methods. IntroductionIn the modern computer era training has gained the reputation of dynamic concept wh ich needs to be understood in that perspective most of the modern organization which do not respond to the dynamic change that are seen in changed environment may well fail to respond to the needs of organization and people. Hence organization virtually needs to aspire to respond to the change in the environment. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 37 (2010) 57 These changes may be concerned with organizational or individual behavior may be concerned with the structural change.Training is one of most important and effective means of bringing about change in an organization. Training is system which feed the needs. Skills. And knowledge of the people working in the organization†¦ these skills and knowledge are acquired to fulfill a specify purpose or goal. Concept of Training Training has been defined by a number of scholars and trainers like Change agents. Some of the definitions are as follows: According to Fllippo:† the act of increasi ng the skills of an employee for doing a particular Job† can be termed as training. Similarly Steinmetz has observed. â€Å"Training is a term process utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by which non-personnel learns technical knowledge and skills for a definite purpose†. 2 From the above definitions it can asserted training is a technique concerned with the development of skills and knowledge in particular actor discipline. Training enhances and improves person’s skills. Imparts knowledge to change person’s attitudes and values towards a particular direction. William G. Torpey has defined training as â€Å"the process of developing skills. Habits.Knowledge and attitudes in employees for the purpose of increasing effectiveness of employees in their present government positions as well as preparing employees for future government positions†. 3 The above definition of training is based on assumption that all training is not necessary and al l training is not beneficial. Training is a technique which properly focuses and direct towards the achievement of particular goals and objectives of the organization. Hence identification of training needs is first and probably the most important step towards the identification of training techniques.The process of identifying training needs is carefully thought out programme that needs to be carried out with sensitivity because success of a training programme may be crucial for the survival of the organization. Objectives of training must be determined to pave way for the assertion of proper techniques of training. Training is imparted to people in organization with certain defined objectives and goals. However it must be remembered that the goals and objectives of organization differ to a great extent. Hence the defined objectives of a training programme should be assessed in the light of the goals of that organization.In 1944. Assheton Committee stated the objectives of training in the following manner: 4 (a) It endeavors to produce a civil servant whose precision and clarity in the transaction of business can be taken for granted. (b) It helps attuning the civil servant to the task he is called upon to perform in a changing world. It in other words helps him to adjust his outlook and methods to the changing needs of new times. (c) It saves the civil servant from becoming a robot like mechanically perfect civil servant. He is made aware of his work and the service that he is required to render to his community. d) It not only enables an individual to perform his current work more efficiently but also fits him for other duties. It develops in him capacity for higher work and greater responsibilities. (e) It pays substantial regard to staff moral as latter have to perform tasks of a routine character throughout their lives. Bhagwan and Bhushan have also identified the following objectives of training: 5 (a) For the performance certain peculiar activities per taining to the government training plays a significant part. 58International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 37 (2010) (b) Training helps the employees to become people oriented and inculcates in them respect and regard for general public. (c) It broadens the vision and widens the outlook of the employees by explaining to them to make substantial contribution towards realization. (d) It is vital to a career service. It lists them for advancement which is assured to the employees when they join the government service at young age. (e) It improves the lone and adds to the quality of organization.Since it enhances the efficiency of the employees and develops their capacities. The efficiency and prestige of the department goes up. (f) It fosters homogeneity of out look and esprit de crops in the employees. Identification of Training Needs Training is a specialized function. Hence trainer must know exactly what is required from the training programme in accordanc e to the identified tools framework techniques processes are identified in designing and implementing efficient effective timely and productive training programmes for those who require it.Training needs also determine the nature of training program. Formulation of training program includes those factors that are related to the evaluation of the program in terms of techniques and skills can be properly considered. Any training program must take into consideration three fundamental behavioral aspects:Organization, people, and environment as far as organization are concerned their survival rests on a certain minimum achievement of goals and objectives which are pre defined to customers owners. Employees. etc. ll these factors are continuously interacting with the organization whose objectives and goals have been formulated so to benefit the members of the organization intermittently The second assumption that needs to taken into consideration is the fact that these objectives can be a chieved only through harnessing the abilities of its people. Releasing potential and maximizing opportunities for development. In others words. The achievement of objectives and goals can be effectively and effectively achieved only if people within the organization possess adequate skills and abilities.If they do not possess the skills and abilities required. the objectives and goals cannot be achieved effectively and effectively achieved only if they do not possess the skills and abilities. if they do not possess the skills and abilities required. The objectives and goals cannot be achieved effectively and efficiently. Hence proper assessment of the abilities and skills of the employees must be considered before any training programme is be formulated . The third assumption is to assess the capability potential of the employees. The people who are engaged in the accomplishment of goals and objectives.In the new perspective, are capable of new learning. If the employees do not poss ess the required potential to adapt themselves to the new environment. The chances of training programs being a success will be doubtful. The fourth assumption about people is concernd with the level of ability and the desire to learn. Training is all about learning. learning organization basically involves people who make or break organization. the organization should be able to provide adequate opportunities and resources where people are able to learn through training new concepts. nd techniques of management. the assumption is also concerned with matching of achieving organizational goals on one hand and on the other providing attractive learning opportunities. the third assumption basically requires that the programmers of training should be so designed so as to provide learning opportunities that are effective and efficient. the objective of training is fulfill the individual needs of the employees and that of the organization as well . The fifth assumption is concerned with t he environment variable. In a dynamic situation.Environment continues to put new pressures and demands upon the system even if it is for survival only. Because of liberalization, competition has become severe and public sector as well private sector has to compete with each other in order to stay a viable entity. Hence changes in the environment can International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 37 (2010) 59 no more be overlooked but need to understood and adapted to. The need for training, therefore, becomes inevitable. Once it is established that need for training is a necessity. The question arises what type of training is required to meet the three challenges.Another important question that comes to mind is whether the training programmed is able to change the pattern of behavior for which it was trained and how effectiveness is will be measured. Before discussing venous types of techniques of evaluation. A close look at various types of training methods will be locked into. With regard to people working in the organization needs and aspiration of the people must be properly evaluated. Specification of training needs means translating the needs of people into specific needs and achieving those aspirations by training programmers.Basic idea behind this evaluation is to make organization learning organization. According to Senge. Where people continually expand their capacity to create results they truly desire. Where new and expansive paupers are nurtured. Where collective aspiration is set free. And where people are continually learning how to learn together. 6 Factors Influencing Training Needs Organizations are complex and dynamic in nature and their effectiveness depends on number of factors. Complexity of organization is again a multifaceted implication of various factors being determined by various environmental factors.Hence the nature of complexity of a given organization needs to be evaluated before determining its training needs. Some of the factors that increase complexity are being discussed keeping in view that all are not determinants of complexity for all organization. Technology in the computer age is being upgraded frequently and hence is the most important factors in increasing the complexity of an organization .. structurally as well as behaviorally. According of Frances and Bee. Technology is changing an ever increasing rate. Today’s state –of-the-art computer is tomorrows junk. Robot assembly pants.Laser printers. â€Å"Transplant and genetic surgery— wherever the workplace— whatever the task. There appears to be a technological solution for everything†. 7 The technological changes are influencing the basic settings of organization. The technological changes are not only concerned with the structure or gadgets of an organization but these changes also influence the behavioral aspect of the very people who are working in the organization. However people do not usually change in technology and its environment. Change can be brought about in a smooth manner only through training techniques.Another important factor that needs to be taken into consideration is concerned with social changes that are taking place in the new social environment. For most organization internal compilations are bound to change in the computer age. People from different backgrounds, women. People from diverse nations will from the workforce of modern organizations. With increasing diversity in the culture. The organizations are bound to receive culture shock. Organization with their exiting format will not be in position to absorb this culture shock.The change agent will be playing an important role in providing appropriate training to absorb culture shock. The third factor that has influenced training needs is related the new role that the government are being asked to play. The governments are being asked to play sensitive role of controlling the business ethi cal activities on one hand and safeguarding the interests of consumer on the other. In the era of privatization and globalization. The governments are formulating legislation to facilitate business activity both public and private as well as safeguarding the consumer interest.Thus managers and CEOs need to be acquainted to the new legislation that are being enacted from time to time. The fourth factor that has influenced the training needs is the emerging competitive market Conditions. It may be asserted that the public and private sector, even in monopolistic conditions. Have to face competition. The pertinent question is whether the new market situation will force the 60 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 37 (2010) organization to go in for training as they are going to face new marketing situations in the times to come.Will the new emerging conditions give rise to pressure groups that have henceforth not been seen in the business world. Basical ly organizations are going to face situations that are the result of competitive markets and development of consumerism. Many of the managers in the public and private sector could not possibly have been oriented towards these new situations. Hence need f training is unavoidable. The fifth factor influencing the training needs related to internal management of an organization. Internally organizations are going to face new dilemmas and problems.Business needs are fulfilled by the human resources that exist within the framework of internal structure. Any strategic plan which does not take this fact into account is bound to face numerous problems. There will be a continuous pressure on the organization to improve performance. Human resources, like managers, workers, staff, and others, have to be kept up to date in expertise and at the same times need to be motivated to perform better. This is a difficult task which cannot be handled by the staff of the organization. Experts called cha nge agents are required to fulfill the task.Training needs cannot be overlooked because it is an on going process. In addition. Training is now considered a specialized function to be performed by the experts. Techniques of Training The object of this paper is not to discuss various techniques of training. Hence training techniques are being short listed for the purpose of their identification for evaluation purpose. However we would like to throw light on some of modern techniques of training. Some of the training techniques that are often used for reeducation purpose are: 1. On –the-job- training. 2. Demonstration. 3. Job instruction training. 4. Vestibule training. 5.Apprenticeship. 6. Coaching –Understudy. 7. Job rotation. 8. Lectures and conferences. 9. Syndicate. 10. Simulation training. 11. Role playing. 12. In-basket exercise. 13. Management game. 14. Sensitivity training. 15. Transactional analysis. 16. Organization development. A detailed discussion of these techniques can be referred to many text books. 8 Here we would like to discuss some of the training techniques that are considered by the experts as essential for improving the performance of organization in competitive situations. Diversity training is becoming extremely important for the organizations that are complex in nature.The work force of these enterprises is divers in nature. Various diverse group from different cultural and social background join one institution and thus submerging various cultural into one. The diverse work force has to be trained so as to provide some from of commonality. Various methods are adopted to provide diversity training. According to Fred Luthans one method of divers training involves putting trainees into groups based on ethnic origin. Then each group is asked to describe the others and listen to the way its own group is described. 9 Another methods of diversity training has been stated in the following manner.International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 37 (2010) 61 Another widely used approach is diversity board games. Which require the participants to answer questions related to areas such as gender. Race cultural differences. Age issues. Sexual orientation. And disabilities. On the basis of the response, the games players are able to advance on the board or are forced to back up. 10 The objectives of theses types of games are to acquaint the players in a non threatening manner with legal rules and restrictions regarding how to manage members of the diverse groups.The third method of divers training concerned with participant focus on cultural issues such how to interact with personal from other countries. It may be added that many of the training programmers related to diver’s work force also use other training programmes. 11 Methods of Evaluation of Training Programmes It is extremely important to assess the result of any training programme. The participant must be made aware of the goals and objectives of the training program and on completion of the training program, they should be asked about the impact of the concerned training programme.Evaluation of any program is a difficult task and more so of a training program. The first step toward evaluation of a training program is to define the goals and objectives of the training program. These goals and objectives should be stated in such format so that they can be measured statistically. Also both the trainer and the trainees most be well acquainted with there role in the training programme. In the evaluation of any training program. The first requirement is to collect valid and reliable data. The required data can be collected by using the fowling techniques. 2 1. Self assessments answer sheets. 2. Question confronted by the trainees. 3. Assessing the collected information and observation. 4. Final result based on earlier information plus the new data Each method of data collection has its advantages and disad vantages. Which need to taken into consideration. The merits and demerits of each method are as follows. Merits of Self Assessment 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The cost factor is quite low. Data can easily collected. Time consumption of the trainer and trainee is negligible. Outside interference is completely avoided.Effective relationships develop between the trainee. Well designed answer sheet can produce healthy results . Demerits of Self Assessment 1. Self assessment is basically self evaluation which can be based of biased responses. The assessment must have enough reliability so as to draw right conclusion in regard to individual assessment. 2. The responses given by the trainees can be based on misrepresentation or misinterpretation of the questions asked. Thus self assessment questions should be small and easy to understand . in addition . no information should be sleeked which will embarrass the trainees. . The information provided by the trainees cannot be evaluated in terms of their correctness. All the trainees do not prefer to give the required information lest it may be used against at any point of time. All these problems can be easily solved. Self assessment is basically adhered to by all the training programs. However what is important to consider is to make proper effective use of this 62 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 37 (2010) technique as the trainees provide valuable information which the trainer can use to formulate training strategy.The second requirement for evaluating a training programme is concerned with the evaluation of the training programme when part of the training programme has been completed. The time factor must be decided before the programme is initiated and the evaluation criteria must be determined before the training programme begins. The first evaluation will give adequate information to the trainers whither the programme moving toward write direction. At the same time trainees will be able to assess the value of the program in terms of its needs and usefulness.It is extremely important to realize whether the trainees have understood the need and importance of the training programme. As this stage adequate data should be collected from the trainees to make proper evaluation of the training programme. The collect data, interview and questionnaire methods can be most effective. Interviews can be conducted by seeking information face to face, by means of telephone, or by other strategies like group discussions etc. Each of these methods has its own merits and demerits. Merits of Interviews 1. Face to face interviews ensures some response. If any responses need to be clarified.The trainer can do so instantly. Similarly if the trainees want any clarification, the same can do immediately. This helps in ensuring correct information. 2. As far telephone interviews are concerned though there is lack of personnel touch. The trainee does not feel the pressure of the interviewer to give answers that suit the trainer. The trainer can answer all those question that are complex in nature. These answers have far more validity as the responses are without any pressure. Demerits of Interviews 1. The interview is a lengthy and costly process as it requires trained and skilled personal to get results that are reliable. . Another important drawback is the possibility of the trainer being involved in the interview. 3. Data collected through interview methods may be out of date and hence difficult to interpret. Merits and Demerits of Questionnaire Questionnaires in one form or another do appear in all kinds of research and surveys. Hence it is extremely vital that the questionnaire is framed with utmost care so that it measures the variable in exactly the way it has been designed for. Once the initial design has been properly framed, a pre _ test must be conducted to find out whether the questions mean the same thing to the trainer and the trainee.If found inappropria te, the questionnaire should be redesigned and a pilot survey should be conducted. If found appropriate. Full survey should be conducted and if found inappropriate the questionnaire should be redesigned again. The reliability and validity of the questionnaire should be properly evaluated before going in for full survey. In regard to collection of data. It may be observed,â€Å"As with any method of data collection it is vital to plan how the data is to be collected. However with this method, since it does not usually involve the design of some sort of formal survey instrument such as questionnaire.It is all to easy to leap straight in without a plan. This can lead to a considerable waste of time and without a plan. This can lead to a considerable waste of time and even worse the wrong data being collected-so the message is plan and design your desk research in the same way as you would any more formal survey. † 13 Thus whatever technique or method we adopt, the validity and r eliability of data must be determined. As a matter of fact the trainer must look at three factors to determine the reliability and validity of the collected data. According to Frances and bee, three key aspects must be considered in any evaluation study.These key aspects are as follows. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 37 (2010) 63 The first factor is concerned with the internal stability of an evaluation study. It is concerned with how well the study measures what we want or are aiming to find out. This usually involves the adequacy and appropriateness of the measuring tool. The instrument, used. What needs to be considered is that whatever instruments we use for the purpose of collecting data, we must make sure that the terminology being used actually measures the variable that we intend to measure.Whether the instrument be interview or questionnaire, the terms must elicit the kind of information that is required. The second factor is concerne d with the external validity. It is concerned with the extent that the findings can be applied bevond the group involved in the study. The conclusions drawn on the basis of collocated should not be applicable only to the group that was the basis of collection of data. On the contrary, the collected data should have the reliability and validity to the extent that its conclusions are applicable to other similar situations. 4 The third factor that needs to be considered is concerned with reliability. The reliability of an evaluation study is the extent to which the results can be replicated, i. e. if the study was repeated the results would be the same. The obvious approach to dealing with this issue is to repeat tests and observations. Also techniques, such as including the same question but in different forms, using multiple observes, etc. can be helpful. 15 The fourth factor that needs to be taken to evaluate training programme is to conduct and determine reaction level of the train ees in respect of the training programme.The reaction criteria is to be determined in terms of open discussion between the trainers, the trainees, and the management. This will give ample opportunity to the management to ascertain whether or not the training programme is achieving the objectives for which it was organized. This evaluation should be conducted half way of the training period. The reaction criteria tends to inform the trainers whether the training programme is achieving the goals as perceived by the trainers. In other words the trainers come to know the level of happiness and satisfaction of the trainees in regard to the training programme.To ascertain and collect this kind of information, the trainees may be asked to fill a self-complete questionnaire in which the trainees have to choose between a range of alternatives and answer some of the open ended questions. The self-fulfilled questionnaire seeks information in regard to entry briefing; whether the objectives of the training programme were achievable and how far have they been useful; whether the trainers performance has been satisfactory; and the training methods utility; the mid term evaluation clears the way of the trainers to reframe the training methodology and cater according to the needs of the trainees.Two fundamental problem need to be assessed in this evaluation process. The first problem is whether information seeked should or should not be collected in the name of trainee. The evaluation as far as possible be anonymous could give, probably, more accurate information than the information collected in the name of the participant. The second related issue is concerned with the venue where the information questionnaire is filled up by the trainee. It is indeed desirable that the trainee provide information away from the course environment.This mid evaluation can be very helpful in providing a lot of information that is reliable and valid. As a matter of fact mid term evaluation can be very helpful and the cost of collecting such information is not only very low but it also helps the trainees to reframe their training programs accordingly the approach of mid term evaluation allows the trainer to make comparisons between different training programs that were conducted in other organization or that were conducted by the trainer himself.However reaction criteria of mid term evaluation does generate an enormous amount of data analysis. How much of this data is used by the trainer for readjusting the structure of the training program depends on the management, trainer, and the participants. The final step in respect of evaluation of training programmes is to assess whether the basic objectives of the training programme have been achieved or not. In this step cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit techniques need to be utilized to measure the performance.This assessment will demonstrate whether the expected learning that was determined before the training programme was conduced has taken place after the conclusion of the training programme or not. 64 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 37 (2010) Some of the scholars suggest that before going in for final evaluation, if feasible, one or two, in between, evaluation, can also be conducted. However too many evaluation questionnaires can disrupt the training program and can create doubts in the minds of trainees towards the effectiveness of the program in the minds of the trainees can be created.Evaluation of the training programme should be undertaken only for the purpose of feedback and restructuring of the programmes to fulfill the goals and objectives of the training program. me. The basic purpose of any training programme is to improve organizational performance i. e. to assess whether the training program has been able to achieve change that it desired from the training program. The final evaluation program must take into factors that might have affected the fin al outcome, for example, competitor initiatives, general economic conditions. Etc. erformance of an organization must be evaluative in terms of the whole unit and not parts of it. Hence any evaluation of the training programme may not result in perfect achievement of the goals. We should identify the key factors and indicators that can influence the final results of the training programme. The assessment of these factors will help in the analysis of the needs of the concerned organization. In this respect a comparative study should be made in regard to the information collected before the training programme was initiated and after the training program where changes need to be visualized and thereupon assessed.If possible a comparative study can also be made of the similar training programme conducted in other organization and analyzes the differences in the final results. At the time of collecting the final data, proper monitoring should be assured. All the required data should be c ollected to make elaborate analysis. 16 In the final analysis it can be stated that the final evaluation is the most important aspect of the training programme aspect of the training programme in order to find and determine the effectiveness of the training programme.This assessment gives a clear picture of the impact of the training program. As indicated earlier, a clear cut indicators of organizational performance determined before the start of the program will make measurement of desired change in terms of evaluation much easier to measure. Conclusion The Evaluation of any training programme has certain aims to fulfill. These are concerned with the determination of change in the organizational behavior and the change needed in the organizational structure.Hence evaluation of any training program must inform us whether the training programme has been able to deliver the goals and objectives in terms of cost incurred and benefits achieved . The analysis of the information is the co ncluding part of any evaluation programme. The analysis of data should be summarized and then compared with the data of other training programmes similar nature. On the basis of these comparisons, problems and strength should be identified which would help the trainer in his future training programmes. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 37 (2010)

The Interconnection of Social Problems essayEssay Writing Service

The Interconnection of Social Problems essayEssay Writing Service The Interconnection of Social Problems essay The Interconnection of Social Problems essayThe interconnection of social problems influences the quality of life. The link between poverty and crime is obvious because socioeconomic status of individuals affects their motivation and behaviors. At the same time, racial stratification is closely connected with a number of social problems, including poverty and crime. The article â€Å"Race, poverty and punishment: The impact of criminal sanctions on racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic inequality† by Darren Wheelock and Christopher Uggen discusses the impact of criminal sanctions on racial and gender inequality. As Wheelock and Uggen (2006) point out, â€Å"the association between crime, punishment, and poverty has long been the subject of sociological and criminological investigation†(p. 1). In fact, this issue is of great importance for all members of society because social problems affect the quality of life, social development and individual identity. The major goal of this paper is to illustrate the interconnection of social problems which are caused by crime, punishment, and poverty.In order to discuss the interconnection of social problems, it is necessary to give explanation to five core arguments made by the authors of the article. These arguments help the reader to find the link between crime, punishment and poverty.First, criminal sanctions and victimization work to form a system of disadvantage that perpetuates stratification and poverty. According to Wheelock Uggen (2006), â€Å"recent patterns of criminal justice policy marked by dramatic increases in all forms of criminal justice sanctions, however, have shifted attention to the role of punishment in contributing to racial and ethnic inequality† (p. 1). Racial stratification is influenced by victimization and punishment. The rate of incarceration of racial minorities is higher than that of whites. As a result, victimization affects family ties and fosters poverty. Criminal sanct ions can be viewed as â€Å"both legal and informal barriers to becoming productive citizens at work, responsible citizens in family life, and active citizens in their communities† (Uggen Thompson, 2006, p. 281).Second, punishment impacts individuals convicted of felonies, as well as their families, peer groups, neighborhoods, and racial group. According to state and federal laws, individuals convicted of felonies have no right to fully participate in everyday activities, which refer to â€Å"labor markets, politics, family life, and educational institutions† (Wheelock Uggen, 2006, p. 3). Therefore, it is necessary to have an understanding of the limited rights, which involve a wide range of civil disabilities. Punishment may perpetuate not only racial stratification, but also stratification along class and gender lines.Third, after controlling for population differences, African Americans are incarcerated approximately seven times as often as Whites. The high rate o f incarceration can be explained by continual racial inequalities in the U.S. criminal justice system. According to researchers, â€Å"the era of mass incarceration can be understood as a new stage in the history of American racial inequality†(Western Wildeman, 2009, p. 221). Undoubtedly, the social impact of mass incarceration is negative because it poses serious risk for the younger generations of African Americans.Fourth, variation in criminal punishment is linked to economic deprivation. As a rule, criminal sanctions and other types of criminal punishment fall on poor people, the so-called impoverished elements of society who have no any privileges. In other words, the product of economic deprivation is criminal activity (Western Wildeman, 2009). Actually, economic inequality affects minority groups exacerbating the consequences of the practices of the U.S. penal system. Criminal punishment linked to economic deprivation has a strong impact on black families.Fifth, as t he number of felons and former felons rises, collateral sanctions play an ever-larger role in racial and ethnic stratification, operating as an interconnected system of disadvantage. The increased rate of crime has become a real problem for the local authorities as it involves the increase in building new prisons. Collateral sanctions influence racial and ethnic stratification because collateral consequences demonstrate negative effects on people living in high incarceration neighborhoods.   The status of people who live in these communities can be defined as â€Å"socially dangerous†. In other words, collateral sanctions work as the elements of an interconnected system of disadvantage, which fosters racial and ethnic stratification. Without a doubt, collateral sanctions exacerbate racial injustice in the American society. The huge number of African Americans behind the bars can be viewed as a method to promote racial stratification. Black children are raised in families, w hich have direct relation to the U.S. criminal justice system (Wheelock, Uggen, 2006; Western, Wildeman, 2009).Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thus, it is necessary to conclude that public perception of crime, punishment and poverty is associated with continuing concerns. The high rate of criminal activity is caused by poverty and correlated with poverty. The results of recent studies point out to the fact that the interconnection of social problems requires thorough investigation. It has been found that criminal sanctions and victimization contribute to the growth of the so-called system of disadvantage that fosters racial and ethnic stratification and poverty.

Stalingrad was one of the most horrendous battles of World

Stalingrad was one of the most horrendous battles of World Stalingrad was one of the most horrendous battles of World War II. It was fought from August 1942 to February 1943, and approximately 1.5 million troops and civilians lost their lives in the battle. The Battle of Stalingrad was fought in and around the city of Stalingrad, Russia. It was a turning point in the war not only because it destroyed a major part of the German Army, but it also caused Germany to lose the initiative in battle, which it never regained. Nazi commanders, including Hitler, made numerous mistakes that allowed the Russians to take control of the battle. Although the Russian Red Army was very determined and heroic in their efforts, the battle was not theirs to win. German superiority in manpower, training, tanks, in the air, and guns should have added up to an easy German victory. As the Red Army was pouring men into Stalingrad, superior German troops and tactics resulted in ten Russians dying for every one German in Stalingrad.Paulus (left), and his aides Lt.-Gen. Arthur Schmi...

HTML Cheat Sheet For Content Marketers - CoSchedule

HTML Cheat Sheet For Content Marketers In todays economy, youve probably heard something about the importance of developing coding skills. However, not all bloggers or content marketers are familiar with HTML. Even among those of us who know a little bit of code, theres always more we can learn. In your job, you probably dont need to know how to build an entire site from the ground up with nothing more than a text editor and your wits. However, if any part of your job involves working in WordPress or another content management system, knowing a little bit of code can be immensely helpful. Here are a few reasons why: Understanding HTML can help you learn  how your blog or website is structured. Knowing even a little bit of code can help you become more self-sufficient (and it may help you save time asking for help). You'll be able to fix stubborn WordPress formatting issues  more easily and with less yelling at your computer. In this post, we'll cover the most essential basics for  blogging-focused readers. If you've never worked with HTML before,  this will be a perfectly paced primer to get you started. Learn #HTML basics to improve your #blog formatting skills. #bloggingIf you have a bit of experience with web coding, you'll still likely pick up a new tip or two (plus, be sure to download the free HTML cheat sheet to use for future reference). If you're a marketer or blogger working with WordPress, and you're intimidated by the mass of "who-knows-what" you see when you click into the Text editor in your CMS, this post is for you. While you can accomplish most of the tasks outlined in this post using the standard WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) WordPress editing controls, knowing how to do things the old-fashioned way is still beneficial (especially when things go wrong and those editing controls seem powerless to help). The standard WordPress kitchen sink offers a lot of power. It isn't always perfect, however, and sometimes it's faster to edit your content's formatting manually.  That's where some basic HTML knowledge comes in handy. What Is HTML? HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language.  It forms the structure of a  website and  has been the backbone of the Internet since the dawn of time (or at least the dawn of the modern  Internet). HTML is used in conjunction with  CSS (Cascading Style Sheets), which is used to control the appearance of a website.  For the purposes of this post, we'll focus just on HTML, and only on a small handful of tags  any beginner can put to use. This video provides  a simple overview of how HTML documents are created (watch this before you proceed): It's okay if that seemed like a lot to wrap your head around. We'll walk through much of the information here in a bit. Pro Tip: You can view a website's source code in most browsers. This can be useful for seeing how websites are built by observing the code itself. Here's how to do this using several popular web browsers: Google Chrome: Right-click and select View Page Source. Firefox: Right-click and select View Page Source Safari: Open Preferences, select Advanced, and click "Show Develop Menu In Menu Bar" at the bottom. Then, go to the Develop menu and select Show Page Source. Internet Explorer: Right-click and select View Source, or press the F12 key on your keyboard. Microsoft Edge: Right-click and select View Source, or press the F12 key on your keyboard. Here is an example of Google's home page with the Show Page Source option selected in Safari on Mac OS X. Why Do Bloggers And Content Marketers Need To Know HTML? If you've ever tried to edit content in WordPress, then you know the formatting functions fail to work the way  you want them to sometimes.  That's because WYSIWYG editors  don't always work as well as intended.  For example, a bulleted list may appear with extra spaces. Your text might not copy and paste correctly. You might want to change the color of your blog theme, but you might not know how. Content marketers should know basic #HTML. Get started here:These are just a few issues you're likely to run into. However, if you know a little HTML, they're issues you can fix. You'll become a more capable marketer  and a more valuable employee. What Are Some Things I Can Do With HTML? In general, you'll gain more control over your content's structure and appearance. Here are some specific tasks bloggers and marketers can tackle with HTML: Create and edit text links. Control paragraph structure. Fix broken lists. Build tables. Remove unwanted spacing. These are just a handful  of helpful things you're about to learn how to do. If you've never touched the Text view section of your WordPress posts, you'll probably feel a bit more confident in your skills too. Words Of Encouragement: Learning HTML isn't as difficult as it may sound. As a blogger or marketer, you don't necessarily need to know how to build an entire website from scratch. By the time you reach the end of this post, you'll likely learn as much as you'll need to know. Why Do I Need An HTML Cheat Sheet? If you haven't yet, we highly recommend downloading the HTML cheat sheet that accompanies this post. It's useful for you to have on hand so that all the common HTML tags are readily accessible. Learning #HTML? Use this #cheatsheet!How To Write HTML  With Text Files And A Browser Ready to write and edit some HTML yourself?  You could get started now using the Text editor in any WordPress post.  However, you can also  use  Notepad (Windows), TextEdit (Mac), or Sublime Text (Mac, Windows, Linux) and your web browser of choice. Pro Tip: If you've never heard of Sublime Text, it's an extremely useful plain text editor that offers more features than Notepad or TextEdit. It's especially handy for writing HTML because it automatically color-codes different portions of your coding, making things a bit easier to read. If you'd like to try it out, download it here. Follow these steps to create a simple HTML file: 1) Create a blank file .txt file. Write your HTML. Then, save your document as an HTML file. Here is an example of a quick HTML file we created: 2)  Click File in your top navigation bar. Then, scroll down to Open File: 3) Select your HTML file and click Open. It'll look something like this: Pro Tip: Remember your .txt document needs to be saved as a .html file. Basic HTML Tutorials For Beginners Now that you have some understanding of what HTML is and how it works (and you've downloaded the HTML cheat sheet, right?), let's  get started on some basic HTML tutorials. How To Format Text Using HTML Let's start with some basic text formatting. How To Create Headings HTML uses six different levels of section headings. They are structured like this: Here's what they look like on the blog: A few things to note about header tags: It's generally considered best practices to include only one  H1 tag (this is important for SEO). Generally, WordPress themes use H1 tags for  blog post headlines. Keep this in mind when formatting headings. You'll likely use multiple H2, H3, etc. tags per post. It's okay if you use heading tags "out of order" (ex: your H2 is lower on the page than an H3). Here's a useful explanation about heading tags from Matt Cutts: How To Make Text Bold If you'd like to make text bold, use this tag: Strong: strongInsert Text/strong In the past, you may have seen bolded text created using the bInsert Bolded Text/b tag. While the b/b tag still works, it's considered outdated. For this post, we'll stick with best practices and recommend the strong/strong tag instead. How To Make Text Italicized Similar to making text bold, there are two different tags you can use to create italics. The emphasis tag is the best one to use: Emphasis: emInsert Text/em You may have seen italicized text using the iInsert Text/i tag, but once again, this tag is considered outdated. How To Create A Paragraph To create a text paragraph, use pInsert Text/p. Here's an example: How To Create A Line  Break If you'd like to force a space between two lines of content, consider using a page break. Simply add the br tag between lines of content, like this: We don't actually think we're geniuses, and I'm certainly no Shakespeare. We just wanted to make sure you were still paying attention. How To Create A Block Quote If you have a quote that's a few lines long (or more),  it should be formatted in a block quote. You could do this in WordPress by clicking here: Or, you can wrap your text using this tag: blockquoteInsert Text/blockquote. Here's how block quotes appear on our blog: How To Create And Edit Links Using HTML You're probably thinking, "WordPress makes it easy to create links, doesn't it?" However, there is still value in knowing how to manually create links. Plus, there are some things WordPress can't do when it comes to links, that need to be performed manually. Let's go over how links are built in HTML, how to link between different sections of an individual post (this is a handy way to build a table of contents), and how to add no-follow attributes (which are potentially powerful for SEO). How To Manually Build An A Href To create a text link, you'll need to use the "href" tag. It looks like this: Place your desired URL (this will be the page you link to) and anchor text (the linked text a reader will click) where noted. Pro Tip:  Internal links (links that direct to other pages or posts on your site) and external links (links that direct to other sites) are created the same way. Here's an example: Here's what the end result looks like: How To Manually Edit Link Anchor Text Let's say we want to change the anchor text in the example link shown above. In this case, simply open the Text view option in WordPress. Then, delete the existing anchor text, and rewrite it: That's all it takes. Pro Tip:  You've now heard us mention anchor text a few times. If you're unfamiliar with what this is referring to, it's simply the clickable text used to create a link. How To Add A No-Follow Attribute To A Link If you know a little bit about search engine optimization, then you likely understand follow versus no-follow links. In short, search engines use links to determine  the importance of web pages. When a site links to another site, they see this as a vote or an endorsement saying, "This content is useful, and related to the web page linking to it." However, there may be times you don't  a link to pass authority to another website. Here are a few examples: You're linking to a page that isn't reputable (but may be related to your blog post). You're writing a sponsored post (buying or selling links is SPAM, and search engines may consider sponsored content links to be paid for). You're writing a guest blog post  or hosting a guest post on your own blog. It's important that links in author bio boxes in guest posts be labelled no-follow, because these were once commonly abused for SEO benefits. The more high-quality website links that you have, the more likely you are to rank in search engines. However, because of this, there are people out there who try to spam search engines with manipulative linking practices (including buying links and writing junk blog posts just to get backlinks without regard for content quality). For more information straight from Google on why you should use no-follow links for guest blog posts specifically, watch this video from Matt Cutts, former head of Google's web spam team: To add a no-follow attribute to a text link, add  the code rel="nofollow" to your href HTML: It's as simple as that. How To Deep Link To A Specific Blog Post Section Now you know how to add a link to another web page or website. However, how do you link to another section within a single blog post? Follow these steps: Switch to the Text view tab in WordPress, and add this tag:  a name="NAME"/a. Delete the NAME placeholder text and write your desired anchor text. Add  a href="#NAME"/a to the location you would like linked. Here is what this code looks like in WordPress (we've used Lorem Ipsum filler text, just for demonstration purposes): Here's what the end result looks like: Now, we can navigate from the top of the page to the next section in one click. However, there is one problem: we can't get as easily. Fortunately, there is an easy solution. We'll add a "Back to Top" link underneath the "Here's Something About Lorem Ipsum" section. We will also add a destination anchor at the top of the page with no anchor text (this way, the link will direct to the top of the page, but no unwanted text will appear to readers). Here's how the link appears: Since we did not specify anchor text for this link destination, nothing appears to the reader. However, clicking "" still directs to the top of the blog post. How To Build Lists In HTML There are two different types of lists you can create using HTML. These are bulleted (or unordered) and numbered (or ordered) lists. Here's how to create each one (knowing how to build these manually can help you edit them more easily by hand in case WordPress messes up their formatting). How To Create A Bulleted List It's easy to create a bulleted list (or an "unordered list") using the appropriate button in your WordPress tool bar: You can also build one manually: Here's what this code looks like in a web browser: Why Are You Telling Me This? Have you ever tried creating a bulleted list, only for WordPress to somehow mess up your formatting? Sometimes, minor formatting issues are easy to fix using the WYSIWYG editing bar. However, sometimes it feels a little bit more like this: In cases where WordPress won't cooperate, it's probably faster to edit your list HTML  manually. How To Create A Numbered List To create a numbered list (or an "ordered list"), follow the same directions as shown above, but change the ul and /ul tags to ol and /ol. Here's what this list looks like: How To Build A Table Of Contents In HTML The deep linking technique described above can be used to build a table of contents. Let's walk through how to do this, using another recent post on our blog as an example: Create a list in the section where you would normally add your text. Make each list item a link. Add links between each section in your post back to its respective table of contents position. When complete, your code should look something like this: This looks something like this on our blog: IMPORTANT NOTE: In the screenshot at the beginning of this section, you may have noticed code that reads div class="callout". This is a piece of CSS that creates a red background box (like the one in this tip, and in the table of contents we just created). If you're creating your own table of contents, you can ignore this line of code and the TOC will still work (it just won't have a background color). Then, the end of this section features a link back to the table of contents. This process is repeated throughout the post to build a working table of contents. To see how this table of contents works in action, visit  our post on time management strategies and try clicking around. How To Build  Tables In HTML Tables are useful for many different purposes, such as building simple image galleries or creating comparison charts. While WordPress doesn't provide a built-in means of quickly creating tables, they're easy to build on your own. This image illustrates how tables are constructed using HTML: Here is what the end result looks like: If you'd like to adjust the alignment or  appearance of your table, it's best to use CSS. Since we're sticking to HTML in  this post, we'll have to cover this topic at another time. Pro Tip: While WordPress doesn't have built-in table functionality, you can  use a plugin to create tables too. This may be faster and more convenient than building them yourself. Although it's still important to understand how they're constructed. How To Add Images In HTML You now know how to format text and build tables in HTML. If you want to add an image, use the HTML image and the Alt Tag attributes: img src="Insert Image URL" alt="Insert Alt Text" Let's try adding an image to our table. Follow these steps: 1.) Add an image to WordPress and find the image file URL: 2.) Paste the image HTML tag into your table in WordPress. Then, paste your URL and write your alt tag in the appropriate spots until you have something that looks like the following: 3.) Here's what the end result looks like: Armed with this knowledge, we think you can probably create something more interesting than a repeating logo. This is just a quick test to walk you through the process. How To Clean Up Common Copy And Paste Issues In WordPress Have you ever tried pasting text from a Word document into WordPress, only to have your formatting get screwed up?  That's because copying and pasting from Word (or another similar word processor) will usually include a lot of hidden formatting. There are three ways to get around copy and paste issues in WordPress: Paste your content into a plain text document in TextEdit (Mac) or Notepad (Windows) before pasting it into WordPress. This will strip out hidden formatting that would otherwise get turned into stubborn HTML. Paste your text straight from Word into WordPress and clean up the formatting manually. Write your posts directly in WordPress. We recommend doing this the easy way (option 1 or option 3), but we'll show you how to do it the hard way too (option 2), in order to best explain what happens when you paste text from Word into WordPress. Ever wonder why copying and pasting from Word never looks right in #WordPress? Read this.Understanding  Non-Breaking Spaces Copying and pasting text from WordPress into the Visual editor in WordPress will add non-breaking spaces to your text. This is probably one of the most common sources of headaches for bloggers when pasting text from Word. Let's dig into what these are and what to do about them. How To Remove Non-Breaking Spaces In HTML Here is some sample text we'll try pasting directly into the Visual view in WordPress: Now, we'll copy and paste this directly into the Visual view in WordPress: Hmm. That doesn't look quite right. Odds are, you've encountered an issue like this at some point. Let's switch to Text view to see what's going on here: See the weird nbsp; tag? This is called a non-breaking space. It forces a space to appear and prevents the formation of another line of text in its place. The issue with copying and pasting from Word is that the text carries non-breaking spaces along with it.  This causes an additional space to appear. Sometimes you can delete these spaces in the Visual editor, but when that fails,  you can delete them manually in the Text editor. Now if you notice weird and seemingly unmovable spaces in your WordPress text, you'll know what to do. TIP: If you don't want to write posts directly in WordPress and prefer writing posts in Evernote or Google Docs, makes it easy to convert Evernote and Google Docs files into WordPress posts. You'll still need to format your headings and formatting, but it's an easy way to save time writing in your preferred word processing tool. Additional HTML Learning Resources You've read through this post. You've downloaded your HTML cheat sheet. You've started experimenting with troubleshooting common WordPress formatting issues. If you're interested in taking your HTML knowledge to the next level here are some recommend resources to continue your learning: Websites: W3 Schools: This is considered by many to be the ultimate resource for learning HTML (and CSS and Javascript) on the web. Mozilla Developer Network: This resource from Mozilla (the folks that make Firefox) is another alternative to W3 Schools that provides in-depth HTML tutorials. Codecademy: This website features tons of useful coding lessons and resources. Lynda: While not free, Lynda features plenty of training courses on HTML (as well as other coding and computing topics). Books: HTML CSS: How To Build Websites: There are a lot of books on HTML out there. However, we recommend this one the most. It's clearly written, accessible to beginners, and well suited to writers and editors who just want a good grasp of how HTML and CSS work. Head First HTML 5 Programming: The Head First series is another great option for learning coding languages in an accessible and straightforward manner. Videos: 30 Days To Learn HTML CSS: If you prefer  learning from videos, this is a great place to start. Remember, everyone learns differently, and some people learn more easily from different types of content.  While this post may provide you with a good starting point, you might find a book or video series more helpful for your purposes. Now Put Your New HTML Skills To Use! There's a lot to learn when it comes to HTML. However, we hope this HTML cheat sheet and step-by-step guide has provided you with just enough tips to make your  blogging life a little bit easier. You now know how to do basic blog formatting with HTML. You know you can create and edit text links, control paragraph structure, fix broken links, build tables, and remove unwanted spacing. Knowing these HTML tips are going to help you tons and you'll be super thankful for the cheat sheet.

The effecst and changes in parenting of Asian families after Essay

The effecst and changes in parenting of Asian families after immigration to Western societies - Essay Example If the perceptions of parents and children are dissonant and based on lived historical experience or current realities, then their ability to manage the stresses of forced migration will be diminished even further. If the perceptions of each generation can be made more congruent, then it is likely that both parents and their children will see each other as resources rather than as additional stressors. To understand this problem, Asian parenting styles and characteristics need to be studied. Warmth and dominating control offer two important dimensions of parental style that may be universal, and against which the meaning of specific practices might be elucidated. The use of these styles as touchstones was an important strategy which can be used in understanding data from new western cultures. Immigration of Asian families to Western Societies usually involves major changes in parent–child relationships. The results of some studies have shown that the relations between immigrant parents and their children are vulnerable to the risks commonly associated with immigration, especially during the adolescent years (Nguyen & Williams, 1988). On the one hand, during adolescence, children become more cognitively sophisticated and think differently about what their parents can and cannot control in their lives. This developmental shift is compounded by the process of acculturation for immigrant adolescents, making them more likely to downplay their parents’ values and modes of behavior and adopt values and modes of behavior from the new society. Immigrant parents, on the other hand, may resist change in their traditional values. Some scholars suggest that despite years of living in the country of resettlement, many immigrant parents preserve their ideas about child-rearing, their expectations, norms, rules, and beliefs (Nguyen & Williams, 1988). The research findings suggest that family values that center around household chores,

Global & International Business Contexts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 2

Global & International Business Contexts - Essay Example etailers of the world, one can find that the company has more than 2,300 supermarkets & convenience stores and has employee strength of 326,000 people. Tesco’s main business is located in Great Britain, where it is the largest private sector business house in United Kingdom and also has the largest food retail business, has more about 1,900 stores (Tesco, n.d.). In continental part of Europe, Tesco have businesses in Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, the Republic of Ireland, Slovakia, and Turkey. In Asia, this company has business in Japan, Malaysia, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand. It also has financial services known as Tesco Financial Services that have 4.6 million customers which is roughly divided into credit card holders and car insurance policy holders. It also has 100-unit Tesco Express chain, due to which the company is ranked as the largest seller of gasoline in United Kingdom. It also has small urban stores known as Tesco Metro and hypermarkets known as Tesco Extra. It is now expanding its business with a TV channel and a "retail based education institution†. The SWOT and PESTAL analysis show that Tesco currently has the resourcing capabilities to introduce the baby wear segment in the market and able to implement a market developing strategy built on the success of its stores in the country. Tesco targets the high-end marketing segment with the differentiation strategy. It opts for introducing a segment of baby wear in Sweden, although there numerous stores operating in Sweden. The current report, using PESTLE and SWOT analysis, will analyze Tescos situation in market and that will be a valuable information for the management team to opt for the correct and definite strategies mainly in corporate level and international level which relates to introduce designer baby wear for infants & toddlers in Northern Europe i.e. Sweden. This report shows that how Tesco tend to diversify market and will also handle its own corporate portfolio. Tesco can

Define Groupthink Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Define Groupthink - Essay Example In groupthink consensus overrides common sense and inhibits the urge to present critique, unpopular opinion or alternatives to whatever is viewed as the commonly agreed ground (Wikipedia, 2013). In groupthink the urge to remain loyal to the team and maintain cohesion makes the team members to desist from raising alternative solutions or controversial issues. As a result, independent thinking, uniqueness in thought and individual creativity are lost at the expense of cohesion and loyalty to the group. The eventual outcome is poor problem solving and decision-making. The failed team dynamics of the â€Å"in-group† presents illusions that the appropriate decisions have been attained. Therefore the ‘in-group’ greatly overrates their decision-making abilities, and excessively downplays the decision-making ability of the ‘out-group’ or opponents. As such, team members tend to think or feel that they are more inclined to making the right decisions and offer better ideas and solutions than people from without the group. This happening often hinders the reception of contribution of ideas from non-group members or other groups (Wikipedia, 2013). This source uses the Swissair collapse and the Bay of Pigs Invasion as examples of events in which groupthink was at play when they took place. In the corporate sector suboptimal and ineffective decision-making may negatively impact on the good performance of any company and cause significant losses. Swissair had been a successful airline to the extent that at times it was referred to as the ‘Flying Bank (Hermann & Rammal, 2010).’ However, during this period of success the airline had two symptoms of groupthink (Wikipedia, 2013). These symptoms included the belief in group morality and invulnerability. Additionally, before the collapse fiasco the airline’s board was significantly reduced and people with expertise were eliminated. The board reduction action contributed to groupthink by leaving behind only

E-Commerce Application Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

E-Commerce Application Development - Essay Example There are lots of other security threats we can face regarding the online business information theft. The hacker hacks the business information and cause a huge damage. This valuable business information can be its customer record or deal/sales record. In this case business customer can have less confidence on the business policies; this will be a great danger for the business (Norton, 2001) and (Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 2005). 10 Next main security threat we have is regarding computer virus attacks on the business network or computer system. These viruses can delete damage or destroy the business system and stop the overall business operation that is really problematic for the business. In the scenario business customer can leave the business (Norton, 2001) and (Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 2005). 10 Here I will suggest some online business security management initiatives those can offer some better business security management and handling. Initially for an online business we need to establish a security policy that defines the possible security threats and initiates to counter those security breaches. Next we need to make available the customer privacy policy on the web. This will offer the customer to recognize the main security initiatives that business has taken to secure mange and control the business and customer information. The next step we need to take is regarding the business information security management about the business network security. Here we implement a network firewall that protects the business from some external attacks. Here we also need to install anti virus, anti spy and anti phishing system to ensure the business network security and integrity (Norton, 2001) and (Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 2005). 11 With the passage of time e-commerce technologies have been swiftly emerging. The people using Internet for shopping of products and

Business study case Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business - Case Study Example Google Incorporation’s operating system. Moreover, the company had been recognized to be among the top five manufacturers of smartphone worldwide. The company had faced many challenges from other smartphone manufacturing companies which include Nokia, Samsung as well as Apple among others (Yoffie, Alcacer and Kim, â€Å"HTC Corp. in 2012†). From the provided case, it has been recognized that Mr. Peter Chou is determined to be a protagonist who is the CEO of HTC. Mr. Chou planned with the top management team to offer better smartphone products in the market with the intention of improving the financial performance as well as competitiveness of the company. In this regard, the CEO is required to devise plans as well as strategies for differentiating its products with the intention of providing better competition to its business rivals in the market. The decisions to be made in this regard were the major concern for the CEO. HTC commenced the business of manufacturing products through contracts since the year 2000 as well as was segregated into two major segments which include original design manufacturer (ODM) for branded companies providing handset as well as developing phones which are based on wireless network operators. In this regard, HTC performed in an efficient as well as successful manner. Mr. Chou had eliminated the bureaucratic structure of the company with the objective of assisting employees of the company to operate their operations in a more collaborative manner. Later on, Mr. Chou had planned to manufacture handsets with the brand name of the company in order to grow its business on international perspective. The only concern was with respect to financial as well as marketing aspects. In this context, the company had planned to develop innovative and quality products for providing better competitive products in the various market segments. The company had collaborated with Google Android as well as with Microsoft to compete in the market

E-Commerce Application Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

E-Commerce Application Development - Essay Example There are lots of other security threats we can face regarding the online business information theft. The hacker hacks the business information and cause a huge damage. This valuable business information can be its customer record or deal/sales record. In this case business customer can have less confidence on the business policies; this will be a great danger for the business (Norton, 2001) and (Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 2005). 10 Next main security threat we have is regarding computer virus attacks on the business network or computer system. These viruses can delete damage or destroy the business system and stop the overall business operation that is really problematic for the business. In the scenario business customer can leave the business (Norton, 2001) and (Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 2005). 10 Here I will suggest some online business security management initiatives those can offer some better business security management and handling. Initially for an online business we need to establish a security policy that defines the possible security threats and initiates to counter those security breaches. Next we need to make available the customer privacy policy on the web. This will offer the customer to recognize the main security initiatives that business has taken to secure mange and control the business and customer information. The next step we need to take is regarding the business information security management about the business network security. Here we implement a network firewall that protects the business from some external attacks. Here we also need to install anti virus, anti spy and anti phishing system to ensure the business network security and integrity (Norton, 2001) and (Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 2005). 11 With the passage of time e-commerce technologies have been swiftly emerging. The people using Internet for shopping of products and

Marketing Communications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Marketing Communications - Essay Example This not only allowed compliance with the marketing plans, but also succeeded in directly addressing the issue of consumer behaviour. This study emphasizes on the strategic significance of communication and the long term effect on the consumers. In this study, one of the biggest telecommunication companies of UK, O2, has been chosen to evaluate its communication mix. In addition, a comparative study between O2 and one of its arch rivals, Vodafone, has also been carried out. The key findings were that both O2 and Vodafone use almost all the elements of communication mix, except direct and personal selling. Although, it has been found that Vodafone is currently enjoying a better position in the market with its strong promotions and better plans, but the study has also shown that O2 has the potential to outshine Vodafone. In this context, the company can use its wide range of offerings to compete with Vodafone. One of the major limitations of the study was that it has been able to carry out secondary research only. It is believed that some kind of primary research along with this would have increased its credibility. Table of Contents 2 Introduction 4 Competition between two Brands 5 Literature Review 8 Market Overview 10 Research Methodology 11 Analysis and Discussion 11 Conclusions & Recommendations 17 Appendix 19 Introduction This paper looks into the marketing strategies of O2 and presents an evaluative study of the current strategies adopted by the company in contrast to its competitor, Vodafone. However, prior to that, brief overview of both the companies will be presented. O2 Telefonica UK Limited, commonly known as O2, is a UK based Telecommunication Company and is owned by Telefonica. The company is considered as the second largest telecommunication company of UK, right after Vodafone. O2 is presently headquartered at Slough, Berkshire, United Kingdom. It was founded in the year 1983 and Cellnet was its predecessor. Apart from the telecommunication servic es, the company also operates in financial service industry and internet service providing industry. Ronan Dunne serves as the present CEO of the company. Since his takeover from the previous CEO, the company has managed to do very well and has also succeeded in maintaining high revenue. O2 offers 2G, 3G and 4G services across the country and in some other parts of Europe. Furthermore, along with the wireless services, the company is proactive in fixed line services as well. The company uses its name as the logo and tries to portray an image where it acts as oxygen to the consumers with its name O2. The company is also active in the fields of charity and for that, it has tied up with groups. One of them is Academy Music Group. Partnering with them, the company has established O2 academy. Vodafone Vodafone Group is a telecommunications company based in London (Vodafone, n.d.). The company has the registered office in Berkshire. The company has influential operations in the internatio nal market and occupies the position of the third-largest mobile telecommunications company, after China Mobile and Singtel in terms of total number of subscribers (Celtnet, 2013). In June 2011, the company had 381.72 million subscribers (Rediff, 2011). The company has expanded its operations in more than thirty countries. Additionally, it has network of business partners in more than forty countries, apart

Reactivity of Mg and Ca Essay Example for Free

Reactivity of Mg and Ca Essay Introduction The aim of this practical is to observe the difference in the reactivity between Mg and Ca when hot and cold water is added. Hypothesis We think they will react in some kind of form. Variables The independent variable was the temperature of the water and also the quantity of metal use in the experiment and the dependent variable was the reaction. Equipment * Mg (s) * Ca (s) * Phenolphthalein * Beaker * Cold and hot water * Sandpaper * Test tubes with rack Procedure 1. The Magnesium was cleaned with sandpaper. 2. Two pieces of magnesium was put into two test tubes and two pieces of calcium was put into two test tubes. 3. Cold water was added into two test tubes one with calcium one with magnesium. 4. Two droplets of phenolphalein were added in each of the test tubes filled with cold water to observe the change in ph. 5. Water was heated over a Benson burner and poured into the two test tubes without water while observing the reactions. 6. Two droplets of phenolphalein were added in each of the test tubes filled with cold water to observe the change in ph. Observation Relative reactivity of Cold water Hot water Mg There was a minimum reaction. Fig. 1 There is a bigger reaction than with the cold water. Fig. 2 Ca The temperature of the water increases right away. Before we dropped the phenolphthalein the solution was white, fig.3, but after adding the phenolphthalein it turned pink, fig.4, which means that the reaction is basic. The temperature stayed the same but because the water was hot the reaction was more explosive and quicker. Before the phenolphthalein the solution was white, fig.3, and after dropping the phenolphthalein it turned pink, fig.4, which means that is a basic solution. Results Are your results in accordance with what you have learned about reactivity? Yes because calcium has more orbits the atom has the less energy it needs to give away electrons. In this case the atom that has more orbits is the calcium that is why it reacts more than the magnesium because calcium needs less energy to give electrons away. And the magnesium didnt react much because it needs more energy that the one that we gave it. Write the balanced equation for the reaction between Mg and H2O: Mg (s) + H2O (l) MgO (s) + H2 (g) Uncertainties Other element might have been present. The hot water might have been heated more. Conclusion We learned that both magnesium and calcium is basic solutions because of the pink tint to the color. We also learned that calcium reacted faster than magnesium.

Mitochondrial Dna And Genetic Evidence Biology Essay

Mitochondrial Dna And Genetic Evidence Biology Essay Introduction: The Out of Africa model, also referred to as the African origins, total replacement, Noahs ark or Eve model is one model suggesting the origins of humankind. This model hypothesizes that the evolution of the modern humankind from their archaic ancestors occurred in one place at the one time. It suggests that modern humans arose as a new species about 150,000 years ago and that this took place in Africa. It was after this speciation event that the modern humans moved out of Africa, replacing all non-African archaic populations. Africa was identified as the origin of Homo sapiens because of the high genetic diversity among Africans. It is much higher than the genetic diversity of other populations around the world. The further away, geographically, from Africa the less genetically diverse the populations are. The last regions to be settled, for instance South America and the Pacific Islands, have the lowest genetic diversity. This review will focus on the evidence obtained from mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal DNA. Both mtDNA and Y-chromosomal DNA are non-recombinant and their inheritance is easier to analysis than for other parts of the genome. MtDNA is only inherited through the maternal line and can therefore be used to determine the female lineage. Analysis of mtDNA revealed a series of population bottlenecks and a progressive loss of diversity moving away from East Africa. The Y-chromosome is passed from father to son and can be used to determine the male lineage. The Y chromosome does not undergo recombination because it is so different from the X chromosome that they dont swap information. This means that the Y-chromosome passed on is the same in father and son (unless it undergoes mutation) making it useful for studying the male lineage. Mutations of both mtDNA and Y-chromosomal DNA accumulate at a fairly constant rate over time, making them useful for estimating the time of human population sp lits. Mitochondrial DNA is also a very good indicator of migration routes and range expansion due to its high distribution and variation. The first lineage to branch off from mitochondrial eve is the L0 haplogroup. The L1, L2 and L3 haplogroups are all descendant of this L0 lineage and are largely confined to Africa. L3 subdivided into the macro haplogroups M and N. These are the lineages found outside of Africa with a low frequency in Africa. The Y-chromosomal haplogroup DE is limited to Africa. Haplogroup F originated in either North Africa or in South Asia. If it originated in North Africa it would indicate a second out of Africa migration. There are two possible scenarios for modern humans dispersal out of Africa. The first suggests a single migration in which only about 150 people left Africa by crossing the Red Sea. The second possibility is that there were two migrations out of Africa. Haplogroup M left by crossing the Red Sea, travelling along the coast to India taking the Southern route. Haplogroup N is thought to have followed the Nile from East Africa, headed north and crossed into Asia via the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. Historical Background: Charles Darwin was one of the first to propose the idea that the ancestor of the modern human originated in Africa. In his book The Descent of Man he proposed that all living organism originated from a common ancestor and he outlined his views that man descended from apes. He stated that in each great region of the world the living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It is, therefore, probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as these two species are now mans nearest allies, it is somewhat more probable that our early progenitors lived on the African continent than elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this subject, for an ape nearly as large as a man, namely the Dryopithecus of Lartet, which was closely allied to the anthropomorphous Hylobates, existed in Europe during the Upper Miocene period; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolut ions, and there has been ample time for migration on the largest scale. Here he is saying that if his theory of common descent was correct and that man really did descend from apes then it would be likely that man originated in Africa as Africa was the region inhabited at that time by apes. Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam: Mitochondrial eve is the matrilineal most recent common ancestor, estimated to have lived about 200,000 years ago. All living peoples mitochondrial DNA is descended from hers. She was thought to have lived in East Africa and her discovery supported the theory that all modern humans originated in Africa and migrated from there. Y-chromosome Adam is the patrilineal most recent common ancestor, estimated to have lived between 90,000 to 60,000 years ago. He was also believed to have originated in Africa. The original paper supporting the Out of Africa theory was written by Cann et al in 1987. In which they found evidence that the MRCA lived in Africa about 200,000 years ago. They studied mitochondrial DNA from one hundred and forty seven people between five different populations, African, Asian, Australian, Caucasian and New Guinean. They found that out of the one hundred and forty seven mtDNA mapped, 133 were distinct from each other. Using the parsimony method they constructed a tree relating the 133 types of human mtDNA and the reference sequence: Figure 1: Genealogical tree for 134 types of human mtDNA. The tree accounts for the site differences observed between restriction maps of these mtDNAs with 398 mutations. No other order of branching tested is more parsimonious than this one. This order of branching was obtained by ignoring every site present in only one type of mtDNA or absent in only one type and confining attention to the remaining 93 polymorphic sites. The computer programme produces an unrooted network which was converted into a tree by placing the root (arrow) at the midpoint of the longest path connecting the two lineages. The numbers refer to mtDNA types found in more than one individual. (both figure and text taken from Cann et al, 1987) This is a tree of minimum length. On this tree there are two primary branches, one composed of Africans only and the other composed of all five populations studied. From this tree it was suggested that Africa was the source of the human mitochondrial gene pool. This is because two of the primary branches lead solely to African mtDNAs and the second branch also leads to African mtDNAs. The common ancestor a must be of African origin in order to minimise the number of migrations that occurred. This tree also indicates that every population except for Africa must have multiple origins. For example, mtDNA type 49 is New Guinean but its nearest relative is not New Guinean and is in fact Asian. New Guinea seems to have been colonised by at least seven maternal lineages. This seems to be the same for all other populations apart from Africa. By assuming that human mitochondrial DNA sequence divergence accumulates at a constant rate they were able to work out that the common ancestor, Mitocho ndrial Eve of all surviving mtDNA types existed 140,000 to 290,000 years ago. The mtDNA results do not show when the migrations out of Africa took place. Nuclear DNA studies carried out based on polymorphic blood groups, red cell enzymes and serum proteins showed that differences between racial groups are smaller than within and that the largest gene frequency differences are between Africans and other populations. This supports the Out of Africa theory because it suggests that the human nuclear gene pool also originated in Africa. (Cann et al, 1987) The Genetic Evidence: The technique used to deduce the colonization pattern of the world is coalescence. This theory is a population genetics model based on the genealogy of gene copies and favours the Out of Africa theory. It describes the characteristics of the joining of lineages back in time to a common ancestor.This lineage joining is referred to as coalescence. The theory provides a way of estimating the expected time to coalescence and establishing the relationships of coalescence times to population size, and age of the most recent common ancestor. This theory makes use of the fact that genetic drift over time will result in the extinction of lineages. This means that any sample of DNA markers will coalesce to a common ancestor when looking backward from the present day generation. The limitation of this theory is that all genetic variation coalesces to the MRCA and as a result the population history before this MRCA is unknown. Genomic phylogenetics reconstruction is necessary to assume the dispe rsal routes of early modern humans. Mitochondrial DNA evidence: A study was carried out by Ingman et al describing the global human diversity in humans based on analyses of the complete mtDNA sequence of 53humans of varied origins. They created a neighbour-joining phylogram on complete mtDNA sequences: Figure 2: Neighbour joining phylogram based on complete mtDNA genome sequences (excluding the D-loop). The population origin of the individual is given at the twigs. Individuals of African descent are found below the dashed line and non-Africans above. The node marked with an asterisk refers to the MRCA of the youngest clade containing both African and non-African indivdulals. (Both figure and text taken from Ingman et al, 2000) In this tree, the three deepest branches lead to exlusively African mtDNAs and the fourth deepest branch contains both African and non-African mtDNA. The deepest branch provides excellent support for the origin of human mtDNA in Africa. The amount of mtDNA sequence diversity among Africans is more than double that of non-Africans. This suggests that ther is a longer genetic history for African mtDNA than for non-African mtDNA. The star shaped phylogeny of the non -African sequences suggest a population bottleneck. This is more than likely associatd with the colonisation of Euroasia from Africa, in which the previous populations are replaced with the modern humans dispersal into Euroasia. The figures below show the mtDNA mismatch distributions for Africans and non-Africans The mtDNA from the non-Africans show a bell-shaped distribution , indicating a recent population expansion. The mtDNA from individuals of African origin show a ragged distribution, indicating a constant population size. Figure 3: Mismatch distributions of pairwise nucleotide differences between mtDNA genomes (excluding the D-loop) a) African; b) Non-African. (Both figure and text taken from Ingman et al, 2000) The initial Homo sapiens population dynamics and dispersal routes remain poorly understood. The mtDNA phylogeny can be collapsed into two sister branches L0 and L123456 (L15). The L15 group is more widespread and has given rise to almost all mtDNA lineages found today. The non-African genetic diversity being formed from two subclades of the L3 branch, M and N. Some of the L clades show significant phylogeographic structure in Africa, such as the localization of L1c1a to Central Africa and L0d and L0k to the Khosian people.(Behar et al, 2008) Analysis of the complete mtDNA sequences of Khosian people suggests the divided from other modern humans no later than 90,000 years ago. This reveals evidence for the existence of an early maternal structure in the history of Homo sapiens. L0abfk split over 133,000 years ago. Since this split the expansion of L0d, L0k, L0abf and L15 clades have progressed in an uneven way. L0d and L0k localized in South Africa, giving rise to the Khosian people and L0abf and L15spread all over the world giving rise to all non-Khosian populations. These maternal southern and eastern populations remained isolated from each other for a long period of time. This isolation suggests the formation of small, independent populations in Africa instead of the previously thought uniform spread of modern humans. (Behar et al, 2008) Mitochondrial DNA L haplogroups: Single nucleotide polymorphism studies have shown that human mitochondrial DNA can be classified into groups of related haplotypes. An early paper by Chen et al analysed mitochondrial DNA variation in Africa, revealing continent specific groups of mtDNA haplotypes (haplogroups). There is an HpaI site gain at nucleotide pair (np) 3592 which is found in sub-Saharan populations with a low frequency in populations which have been known to have mixed with Africans. The mtDNA that contain the HpaI site at np 3592 form the most divergent mtDNA haplogroups in the world. Continent specific polymorphisms characterize mtDNAs from European, Asian and Native American populations. These continent specific polymorphisms have a high frequency in one continental population and are specific to either European, Asian or Native American populations. These mutations took place after the genetic separation of the ancestral population that formed the modern human ethnic groups. The oldest and the largest haplogroup in each continent is usually the one that is the most divergent. All the mtDNAs associated with the HpaI site gain at np 3 592 all come from the same common ancestor. These cluster in the L haplogroup. This haplogroup is subdivided into theL0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 and L6 sub-haplogroups by additional polymorphisms. The L haplogroup and L1 and L2 sub- haplogroups are said to be of ancient origin due to their dominance in sub-Saharan populations. The ages of these haplogroups were determined from the assumption that nucleotide substitution accumulates at a constant rate. The age of haplogroup L is between 98,000 and 130,000 years, haplogroup L1 is between 86,000 and 113,000 years and haplogroup L2 is between 59,000 and 78,000 years. Comparison of the sequence divergence of the L haplogroup determined that the African haplogroup is the most divergent. The approximate ages for the continent specific haplogroups agree with the theory that all modern humans have a common ancestor from an ancestral population in Africa. These ages also agree with the suggested times of dispersal and migration of the modern human populations into the other continents. The age of the haplogroup L could indicate that this haplogroup originated before modern humans dispersed from Africa. However, the haplogroups L1 and L2 were not carried from Africa by the modern human populations that migrated to the Middle East and Asia. Instead another haplogroup must have participated in this migration. There are mtDNAs that do not contain the HpaI site gain in np 3592. These were found in sub-Saharan populations and suggest that there were some mtDNAs without the 3592 HpaI site that originated in Africa. They are widely distributed in sub-Saharan populations and most likely have an ancient African origin. These mtDNAs are similar to mtDNAs in Europe and Asia and seem to be the only mtDNAs carried out of Africa by migration of the modern humans. They gave rise to the non-African modern human populations and are now know to be haplogroup L3. This paper exhibits data that confirms that there was a high sequence divergence w ithin Africans compared to the rest of the world thereby supporting the Out of Africa Theory. There is less sequence divergence in Asians than in Africans. Native American populations have the lowest values of sequence divergence. (Chen et al, 1995) The minimum coalescence age for modern humans has been estimated to be between 156,000 and 169,000 years before present. Analysis of the L haplogroup has been carried out in order to find those sub-haplogroups involved in the migration of modern humans out of Africa. The L0 haplogroup is the earliest descendant of mitochondrial Eve and is a sister group to the L1 haplogroup. L0 is subdivided into L0a, L0d, L0f and L0k. L0a is thought to have originated in Eastern Africa and is dominant in Ethiopia. The idea that east Africa is the most likely region for L0a variation is further supported by the phylogeny of the L0 clade. L0d and L0k originated in Southern African. L0f is rare and confined to East Africa. The relationship between L0d and L0k is still uncertain. The first ancient split from this into L1b/c occurred over 120,000 years ago. The L1 haplogroup is divided into L1b and L1c. L1b is common in Western Africa and L1c is frequent among central African Bantu speakers. See figure__ for the relationship between these two haplogroups. FIG. 3.-Phylogenetic tree of mtDNA genomes (excluding the d-loop) obtained by maximum likelihood Bayesian analysis. The split into the L2 lineage occurred in Africa over The L2 lineage is divided into two sub-clades L2a1 and L2b. A mutation at np12693 characterizes the L2a1 clade. Ethiopian L2a1 sequences contain mutations at the np 16189 and the np 16309. L2a1c contains mutations at np 16209, 16301 and 16354. L2a1a has a mutation at np 16286. L2a1a is found mostly in South-Eastern Africa. The split into the L3 sub-clade occurred over 59,000 years ago in Africa. The most frequent of the L3 sub-clades is the L3f haplogroup. This haplogroup seems to be confined to East Africa. However, there is an occurrence of variations of this clade in West Africa indicating an early dispersal of the L3f1 lineages. L3f1 is characterized by two mutations in its coding region. The L3 haplogroup is subdivided into three clades, L3i, L3x and L3w. Haplogroup L3i contains a transition at np 7645. It was also found to occur within a sister group of W haplogroup lineages in Eurasia. The L3x haplogroup is characterized by transitions at nps 6401, 13708 and 16169. This haplogroup is very frequent among Ethiopians, especially among the Oromos. It can be sub divided into two clades, L3x1 and L3x2. These two clades are confined to the Horn of Africa and the Nile Valley. The L3w haplogroup contains substitutions at nps 15388 and 16260. This haplogroup is confined to East and North-eastern Africa. L 3b and L3e haplogroups are found in West Africa and Bantu-speaking populations in South-east Africa. The L3d haplogroup is mostly found in Western Africa. It is divided into the two sub-clades L3d1 and L3d2. The L3d1 sub clade has a high frequency in South-East Africa. L3d2 is characterised by transcriptions at nps 15358 and 16256. These occur in Western Africa. Ethiopian L3d2 lineages contain a transition at np 16368 and this is not found anywhere else in Africa. The L3 clade is more related to Eurasian haplogroups than to African clusters of the L1 and L2 haplogroups. L4 is an early branch from L3. It is divided into two sub-clades by three coding and three control region markers. Substitutions at nps 195, 198, 7376, 16207 and 16260 characterise the L4a1 haplogroup. L4g was previously named L3g but it was found to share ancestral character states at nps 769 and 1018 with haplogroup L4a. It is mostly found in Ethiopia. L4a and L4g have high haplotype frequencies and sequence diversity in Ethiopians.The L5 haplogroup is divided into L5a and L5b. L5a is found almost exclusively in East Africa. L5 b on the other hand is spread through Southern Africa.The L6 haplogroup contains six coding transitions and one control region transition. This haplogroup is thought to have originated in East Africa. It is a sister clade of the L2, L3 and L4 are all frequent there, giving support to this theory. The mtDNA tree splits at its core layers into branches that carry exclusively African sequences and just one, L3, which the Africans share with the rest of the world. All non-African mtDNA lineages are derived from just two branches, M and N, branching from the root of the L3 haplogroup. These also give rise to a number of sub-clades specific only to African populations. The N haplogroup gives rise to a daughter clade, R, which is also a founder of extant non-African populations. The first informative split in the mtDNA tree with regards to phylogeny occurs at the level of L3/M, N, R clades. The next informative split in the mtDNA tree distinguishes all major continents excluding America beneath the M, N and R founders. The M and N Haplogroups: The M1 haplogroup has a high frequency in Ethiopia. It has two subclades, M1a and M1b. M1a contains a transition at np 16359. It can be found in Near Eastern, Caucasus and in European populations. The M1b group is smaller and confined to East Africa. Both M1a and M1b are rare in North Africa. Another clade, M1c, is present in Northern Africa, the Canary Islands and the Near East. This clade is characterized by a transition at np 16185. The N (preHV) haplogroup is the most frequent in Ethiopian lineages. This lineage occurs in populations in the Near East, Southern Caucasia and North Africa. Y-chromosomal DNA evidence: The Y chromosome Consortium (2002) tree was updated in a paper by Karafet et al in 2008. This tree identifies the 18 major clades, A to R, in the Y chromosome tree. There are five paragroups that were not based on a derived character and they represent the interior nodes of the tree. There are 243 different mutational events that give rise to 153 non recombining Y chromosome haplogroups. The C and FT haplogroups were united by the P143 mutation. These haplogroups contain lineages that are not usually found in sub-Saharan Africa. The C-FR chromosome must have been carried out of Africa early on in the dispersal out of Africa. The IJ clade is joined by seven mutations and the NO clade is joined by six mutations. The M lineage is joined to two K haplogroups by the P256 marker into the M super clade. Diagram p4 from the revised Y chromosome haplogroup tree. Two mutations, M91 and P97, identify Clade A. This clade is one of the most base haplogroups on the Y-chromosome tree and is almost entirely confined to Africa, being most frequent in Khosian, Ethiopian and Sudanese populations. Clade B is characterized by four mutations and is also almost completely restricted to Africa, mostly confined to sub-Saharan Africa with the highest frequencies in Pygmy populations. The C haplogroup is identified by five mutations. It has not been found in African populations and may have an originated in Asia after the dispersal of modern humans out of Africa. Haplogroup D is defined by two mutations. This haplogroup is also thought to have originated in Asia as it has not been found anywhere else. These lineages are found almost completely in Central Asia and Japan with a low frequency in Southeast Asia and the Andaman Islands. Clade E is identified by 18 mutations and is the most mutationally diverse Y chromosomal haplogroup. These are found mostly in Af rica with moderate frequencies in the Middle East and low frequencies in Central and South Asia. The FT clade is defined by 25 mutations. The F* paragroups has a low frequency in India. The G clade is identified by two mutations and is divided into two subclades, G1 and G2. This clade is mostly present in the Middle East, the Mediterranean and the Caucasus Mountains. Haplogroup H is characterized by one mutation and is divided into two subclades, h1 and H2. This group is almost exclusive to the Indian subcontinent. Clade I is characterised by six mutations and is sub-divided into two subclades, I1 and I2. This clade represents two of the major European Y chromosome haplogroups with clade I1 being found mostly in Northern Europe and clade I2 is widespread in Eastern Europe and the Balkans. Clade J is defined by three mutations and is divided into two major subclades, J1 and J2, and also contains a paragroup J*. These lineages are found at high frequencies in North Africa, the Middle East, Europe, Central Asia, Pakistan and India. Haplogroup K is defined by the derived state at four sites and the ancestral state at the mutations that characterize the L, M, NO, P, S and T lineages. There is a paragroup K* and four different lineages characterized by five mutations. The K1 haplogroup is found at a low frequency in India and the K2, K3 and K4 haplogroups are found in Oceania, Indonesia and Australia. The L haplogroup is characterized by six mutations and the majority of this haplogroup is found in India, with the L haplogroup also being present in the Middle East, Asia, Northern Africa and along the Mediterranean coast. The M superclade contains 19 internal mutations. This lineage is confined to Oceania and eastern Indonesia. The N haplogroup is defined by 10 mutations and is restricted to Northern Eurasia. Clade O is defined by four mutations and is a major haplogroup in East Asia. It is also found at a low frequency in Central Asia and Oceania. Haplogroup contain s the Q and R lineages. Clade Q is characterized by the M242 mutation and is distributed in North Eurasia with a high frequency in some Siberian groups. It is also found in Europe, East Asia and the Middle East and is the major lineage in native Americans. Cade R is defined by eight mutations and is the major y chromosomal lineage of Europeans. Clade S is defined by three mutations and is mostly found in Oceania and Indonesia. Clade T is identified by six mutations and is divided into two subclades found at a low frequency in Africa, Europe and the Middle East. The two primary splits in this tree lead to the A and B haplogroups, both of which are restricted to Africa. These are genetically diverse and have sub-haplogroups geographically distinct from each other. The remainder of the deep structures of the phylogeny are characterized by three sub-clusters that coalesce at the root of the CR-M168 node. These represent all the African haplogroups and all the non African haplogroups. There is a shared presence of the De haplogroup in Africa and Asia. The C haplogroup is a non African haplogroup and is widely distributed in East Asia, Oceania and North America. The haplogroup F-M89 is another non African cluster that is distributed all around the world. The F* and H haplogroups are restricted to Asia, the I haplogroup in Europe and the J haplogroup in the Middle East. Apart from the A and B haplogroups all other Y chromosome haplogroups descend from one ancestral node, CDEF which is defined by the mutations M168 and M294. This node is split into the C, DE and F haplogroups and these make up the majority of African and non African affiliated chromosomes. Due to the fact that the A and B haplogroups originate in Africa it was proposed the CDEF node also originated in Africa. An African origin of the DE haplogroup was supported with the detection of the DE* chromosome in Nigeria and by the recognition of the D-M174 haplogroup. See figure8d page 555 from Underhill It was proposed that two independent founder types D and CF evolved out of Africa (see figure above) The common ancestry of C and F founder types was supported by a single mutation, implying the diversification of CF from DE was shortly followed by they split of C from F. Although the D and E haplogroups share a common ancestry there is a geographic distance existing between the two of them. The D haplogroup is widely distributed in Asia and the E haplogroup is frequent in Africa. This suggests long term isolation and extinction of descendants in the area between Africa and Asia. Upon analysis of the Y chromosome it is clear that North Africa is genetically similar to the Middle East and there is a clear genetic difference between North-Western Africa and Sub-Sahara Africa and Europe. The lineages most prevalent to North Africa are absent in both Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. E3b2 is most common in North Africa, R1b is common in Europe and E3a is common in many sub-Saharan areas. This suggests that there was limited gene flow between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa and Europe. E3b2 is rare outside of North Africa and the other dominant haplogroup J* in North Africa reaches its highest frequency in the Middle East indicating that there was gene flow between these two populations. It has been proposed that the J haplogroup originated in the Middle East. The M35 lineage is thought to have originated in East Africa due to its high frequency and diversity there. It is thought to have given rise to the M81 lineage, E3b2, that is found in North Africa. (Arredi et al, 2004) Exodus from Africa: The migration out of Africa is thought to have occurred over 100,000 years ago and is believed to have led to the later colonization of the rest of the world. The first evidence of the existence of modern humans outside of Africa has been dated to over 80,000 years ago. However, this was an isolated incidence and is thought to represent an early offshoot that has since died out. Successful migrations are believed to have occurred between 45,000 and 75,000 years ago. There are two scenarios describing modern humans dispersal from Africa. The first suggests a single migration event took place. This theory proposes that only about 150 people left Africa crossing the red sea. This is because only the descendants of one lineage, L3, are found outside Africa. The M and N haplogroups are rare in Africa and seem to have arrived recently. This may be a result of mutations in the L3 haplogroup arising in East Africa just before the dispersal out of Africa or may have arisen shortly after the m igration from Africa. The second scenario suggests a multiple dispersal model. This indicates that the M haplogroup crossed the Red Sea, travelled along the coast and arrived in India and the N haplogroup headed North, trailing the Nile and crossed into Asia through the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. This group divided and went in several different directions. Some went east into Asia and others went to Europe. This scenario might clarify why the N haplogroup is predominant in Europe and the M haplogroup is absent. Mitochondrial evidence for the dispersal from Africa: Mitochondrial DNA analysis of present day African lineages points to a rapid population growth in the ancestral African population. Studies revealed a peak in African populations about 80,000 years ago with similar peaks in Asia and Europe somewhere between 60,000 and 40,000 years ago. This evidence shows a rapid increase in the African population much earlier than in Europe or Asia indicating expansion in Africa due to dispersion from a small population to other parts of the continent. There was an expansion of the L2 and L3 mitochondrial lineages about 80,000 and 60,000 years ago. Population diversity among African populations: There seems to be limited haplotype sharing among northern, eastern and Sub-Saharan Africans. Some haplotypes are common in one area but missing from the others. Chromosomes with the PN2 T and DYS271 A alleles are common in both northern and eastern Africa. These have been divided into different haplotypes, one of which bears the M81 mutation and is present in some Northern African populations and absent in Eastern African populations. There has been a population expansion in Northern Africa suggested by the age and the high frequency of the M81 haplotypes in north-western Africa. The spread of haplotypes 22 and 24, both of which contain the DYS271 allele, has erased pre-existing genetic differences among different regions in sub-Saharan Africa. Haplotypes 22, 24 and 41 have an extremely high frequency in Sub-Saharan Africans. It is thought that haplotype 41 was involved in the expansion of Bantu-speaking populations from western Africa into southern Africa. This is supported by the fact that the variance of haplotype 41 is much higher in the central western Africa than in southern Khosians. This is also true for the 22 and 24 haplotypes. An Eastern African origin: The oldest remains of modern humans were found in eastern and southern Ethiopia and have been dated to over 160,000 years ago. Eastern Africa is thought to be the origin of the earliest migrations of modern humans out of Africa. The M haplogroup has been found in high frequencies in Ethiopia and Asia. The presence of the Asian mtDNA haplogroup M is unique to Ethiopia. These two regions have a different variation o