Cross Cultural Studies in Gender Essay Example for Free

Cross Cultural Studies in Gender Essay Most research into gender roles has occurred in Western societies, and generally shows a clear divide in gender roles, most encouraging masculine behaviour in boys, and feminine behaviour in girls. However, in order to further explore the idea of nature vs. nurture (biological vs. social approach); it is important to research gender roles in a variety of countries. If clear themes, it may indicate that gender role development is nature, as would show that men are similar to men across the whole world, and likewise for females, showing there must be something determining the way men work, whereas if there are clear culture differences, it would imply social factors determine gender. Cross cultural research has been explored for many years by anthropologists. Some of the earliest work came from Margret Mead in the 1930’s. Comparing three Papua New Guinean tribes, the Arapesh, the Mundugumor and the Tchambuli, she discovered different behaviours displayed by both men and women in each individual tribe. In the Arapesh, men and women were seen to be gentle, responsive- fitting the Western stereotype as feminine. In the Mundugumor tribe, she found males and females to violent and aggressive- the Western stereotype of masculinity and finally in the Tchambuli tribe, she found role reversal to Western stereotypes, as males were more emotionally dependant and flirtatious, whereas the females were dominant, impersonal and definite. Although at first, Mead concluded that her research showed that gender roles came through cultural determinism as big differences were found between males and females in different cultures, implying that gender roles were driven by social factors. However, after later analysis and extending her research to look at other tribes in Samoa, she changed her view (1949) to that her research actually showed cultural determinism, as despite differences in the roles males and females played in each society, in all the societies she looked at men were more aggressive than the women, contributing to the idea that gender role is determined by nature, as there are some behaviours which are innate and universal, e. g. ggression in men, but that degree to which they are expressed is relative to the particular culture. This fits under the biosocial approach, as her research suggests there are some behaviours which are universal, but the degrees to which these behaviours are expressed depends on social factors, such as culture. Mead’s study was a natural experiment, meaning the tribes were observed in their usual environment, suggesting she was noting their true behaviour. However, her method has been heavily criticised by other psychol ogists such as Freeman (1984). Her research was conducted through interviews and observations of the tribes, but Freeman who also worked with Samoan tribes was told that Mead provided the tribesmen with what she wanted them to say. Although this questions the validity of her research, in later years there has been lots of cross cultural research to show differences and similarities and divisions of labour and behaviour by gender in every society (Munroe and Munroe 1975). Further research to support the nature side of the argument is from Whiting and Edwards 1975. Through looking at 11 non-western societies, they found that gender roles were organised in similar ways across a range of traditional cultures. They found girls were encouraged to spend more time with their mothers and were more likely to be given domestic and childcare jobs, whereas the boys were likely to be assigned jobs outside the house such as herding animals. This lead to girls spending more time with younger infants and adults, whereas boys spent more time with their peers, and so It seemed younger girls were found to be more responsible and nurturing than boys who in early adolescence began to get more responsibility. Whiting and Edwards concluded that the behavioural differences observed came about because of the tasks they are given. Girls are taught how to be responsible at a young age as they are exposed to female role models, and develop skills of caring for younger siblings. In another, Whiting and Whiting (1988) observed children in their natural environment with parents, siblings and peers. There were universal differences that girls were more nurturing and boys showed more dominance. However, the fact there were key differences between boys and girls such as what they were socialised into, and what they were encouraged to achieve, implies that both upbringing and biology play a role in development; socialisation just magnifies the biological difference, hence differences across cultures such as between US and India. Bee (1995) supported the idea of socialisation being the most important factor in determining gender, as he stated children became the company they keep. However, researches such as Omar et al found similarities in varied countries such as Switzerland, Ethiopia and the US. Their research indicated that all boys show higher levels of competitiveness and aggression than females, indicating there are underling biological factors. Further support for the nurture argument comes from Berry et al (2002). They studied male superiority on spatial perceptual tasks in 17 societies. He found that this superiority is only found in relatively tight knit, sedentary societies but absent in nomadic societies. This shows that the magnitude of sex differences is linked to culture and ecology. In tight knit societies, the division of labour is greatest because women stay at home whilst men travel, whereas in nomadic societies, both men and women travel and hunt so there is less division of labour (Van Leeuwen 1978). Therefore, this implies that social factors dictate gender role, due to the cultural differences in division of labour found. Berry’s large study of a variety of societies indicates his results can be representative of the general population and we can generalise results. However, Kimura (1999) offered an alternative biological interpretation, that in hunting societies, those with poor spatial perception are likely to die, thus eliminating such genes from the gene pool. This explains why in nomadic societies, there would be less gender difference in spatial abilities. Further biological support comes from Buss et al (1989). Involving 10,000 participants from 37 cultures, he found universal themes in what males and females looked for in marriage partners. Women desired males who had good financial prospects, whereas men placed more important in physical attraction and youthfulness. Both sexes agreed intelligence, kindness and reliability are important. Due to the fact these finding were universal, and the scale of the study implies we can generalise, it suggests gender roles are biologically determined. However, an alternative argument may be that women look for providers, not because of biology, but because of the fact women tend to earn less in society, and in some countries, have fewer rights, which is a social issue determining differences in gender roles. But despite the fact that labour division are the same in most cultures- irls are brought up to be nurturing, responsible and obedient, likely to raise the children, whereas boys are raised to be more independent, self-reliant and high-achieving, and provide for their family, suggest that it is biology that determines sex roles. However, it is difficult to decipher whether division is the direct outcome of biological differences or whether it is a more indirect outcome of biological differences. Eagly and Wood argued that all cultures shape their socialisation processes along with the lines of inborn biological tendencies. However, there has been research to counter this. Sugihara and Katsurada (2002) found that Japanese men do no not seek to be macho like Americans, but instead value being well-rounded in the arts (usually associated as femininity), showing that labour divisions are not the same in all cultures. As well as looking at the divisions of labour between difference cultures, there has also been research into the differences between gender roles in collectivist and individualistic cultures. In 2002, Chang, Guo and Hau, compared 145 American and 173 Chinese students by giving the students a 10 item Egalitarian Gender Role Attitudes Scale, which measured their attitudes to gender equality at home and in the work place. Chang et al found that American students emphasised the important of equal gender roles at work, whereas the Chinese students emphasised the importance of equality at home and in the family. Although this does indicate differences, this may be due to the nature of their home country. In communist China, equality at work is taken for granted. Further exploring this, Leung and Moore (2003) compared Australians of English and Chinese decent using Bem’s SRI and fond differences in line with the Hofstede’s dimensions. Both male and female English Australians showed masculine traits which are valued in individualistic cultures, whereas Chinese Australian’s; male and female, showed feminine traits valued in a collectivist culture. Both research studies imply that cultural values and expectations have a strong on the development of gender roles and expectations (nurture). A big problem with much research is how you measure sex stereotypes. Williams and Best (1990) study highlighted some of the problems linked to this. 2,800 university students from 30 different nations were given a 300 item adjective checklist (ACL) and asked to decide for each adjective whether it was associated more with men or women. They found a broad consensus across countries- men were seen as more dominant, aggressive and autonomous, whereas women were more nurturing, deferent and interested in affiliation. This suggests there are universal gender stereotypes about gender roles, indicating, they are derived though our genes. However, this study proposed many problems in how they measured sex stereotypes. Firstly, the participants had to pick either male or female, there was no equal category (although there was a ‘cannot say’ category) which may have resulted in the division in gender roles being exaggerated. Furthermore, the task was related to stereotypes, not actual behaviours. Some argue that such stereotypes have a significant effect on socialisation within the culture, and this are related to behaviour, but the data does not demonstrate this. Finally, because all of the participants are students, it indicates there behaviours are similar e. g. intelligences, and exposed to similar influences which may explain the broad consensus. Another problem is a lot of the cross-cultural research has been collected by western researchers, therefore, even though they were collecting data in western and non-western societies, the method of research will be developed by western psychology. This may indicated imposed etic, and the data collected is meaningless and demonstrates cultural bias. To overcome this, Berry et al (2002) concluded that there should be a greater use of more genuine indigenous research, opposed to indigenous researchers carrying out the method of western psychologists. To conclude, despite methodological problems, due to the universal similarity in gender roles found in various investigations, it indicated that biology drives gender roles. However, difference found between cultures indicates social factors are also important, so there is a complex interaction between both factors, so the biosocial approach may be a more suitable approach, as it is less deterministic and acknowledges both aspects. As well, it is important to account for historical changes. Much research was done in the 1970/1980’s when the gender gap in many western countries was much larger than is it today, as it is now accepted that both males and females work, and parental equality. However, males still occupy more powerful positions than women, and women perform more domestic duties. But it is an important factor to consider when looking at data.

the war scare :: essays research papers

The War Scare  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It has been said that the United States is just like the Roman Empire. We started off small, became a great power, and hit a high point in life, all of which have happened to the United States. Now, in the twenty-first century, we are putting ourselves in places and positions that many believe that we do not belong in. For Example, in the country of Afghanistan, we have â€Å"worn out our welcome†. We went over there, set up American businesses, and basically took over their business flow. We have been asked nicely to leave, been told to leave, and finally threatened, but we did not take it seriously enough. Well, our decisions have come back to haunt us. Now, we face the fate of the great Roman Empire. Falling to our knees and being crushed, or at least bumped down below a world power.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On September eleventh, two thousand and one, our world was smacked in the face and pushed to its knees. The United States has reason to believe that a known terrorist, Osama Bin Laden, organized the high-jacking of four transcontinental flights, and told them to crash into both the World Trade Center towers, the Pentagon, and the White House. At eight o-clock, Central Time, the first plane hit one of the World Trade Center towers, and five minutes later, the other tower was hit. Millions stood and watched the buildings burn, and eventually fall. Our head for all military operations, the Pentagon, was crashed into, and the whole West Side was destroyed. The last flight crashed harmlessly into a field in Pennsylvania, thanks to the people who sacrificed their lives to save others. The world was getting back on its feet, the damage was being picked up, and the United States was living up to its name for once. However, it was not over yet, for a plague had begun to sp read across our land. Letters that had been filled with anthrax were being sent to senators, heads of major companies, and other high positioned people in the U.S. The first case of anthrax that was fatal happened in North Carolina while the victim was sitting by a stream. It was believed that the deadly spores could not leak out of the sealed envelope, and if they did, it would not be in large enough numbers to harm anyone, especially postal workers. When the first case died of inhalation anthrax, the government was jumping all over it, and then two postal workers died of inhalation anthrax because they just handled the mail that had anthrax spores in them.

Chinese philosophy Essay

On Earth we are pushed almost simultaneously in some sort of direction, opportunity, decision, etc. and when these situations present themselves we face dilemmas of how and why we should approach them in a certain manner according to moral precepts, short and long term goals, and societal constraints. The teachings of Taoism are an excellent if not perfect life guide for these dealings, because the Tao, or â€Å"the way†, can be thought in terms of a form of enlightenment or remedy for the humanly ways of this world. The Tao upholds the natural proof that life is of the utmost importance and the most valued possession in life is intrinsically itself. In this supreme experience of life we face constant movement for advancement of self and quality of life by technology and mentality, yet the Tao gestures a content and simple life where these â€Å"improvements† aren’t the strives we need to be making. The orchestrator of Taoism himself, Lao Tzu, it was said, â€Å"the greatest Virtue is to follow the Tao and Tao alone† (Tzu 10) which states of the Tao’s incomparability to life’s other moral and spiritual modules. Throughout this paper I will divulge the in the functions of simplicity and humbleness professed in Taoism as well as the utility of the Tao in nearly every aspect of life. History and Beginnings of Taoism Taoism is believed to have started in the 6th century B. C. E. by a former government worker who maintained the royal archives during the reign of the Chou Dynasty. That keeper of the royal archives was named Lao Tzu and he became dreary from his work so left his occupation to pursue a different calling out west. It is speculated that upon his departure from the confines of China, a guard watching the border asked him to record all of his wisdom before he passed. With this incentive Lao Tzu sat down and wrote the Tao Te Ching, which was his only known work summing up to roughly 5,000 words and spoke of in depth of the manner of the Tao and how it correlates to us, this life, and the world. It was Tzu’s only work (which some scholars dispute it was other sages compiling together and not one entity, Lao Tzu) whereupon he was never seen or recorded again. With this Taoism was born. To understand the method of the Tao it needs to be understood what the Tao reflects and what the Tao is because that is the essence of the Tao, it just is. Essentially the Tao is the natural order and true way of life, it is an ultimately indescribable yet definable through guidelines and the teachings written by Lao Tzu. Lao Tzu even said in the first lines of the Tao Te Ching, â€Å" The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao† , signifying that telling and learning of the Taoism is not genuine Tao because the Tao has to be lived and found out personally from person to person. â€Å" Daoist ideas[consist of ] the ecstatic journey, physical immortality, sexual yoga, and in particular the aspiration to harmonize human life with the way of nature†, here we see a connection to individual life and becoming one being of nature through this â€Å"ecstatic journey†, which is simple bliss in our voyage through time on this earth. While were here on planet Earth we aren’t really making the best out of it but rather coming to the realization that inherently this life is the best in the way it is. This simplicity is the vitality of our life, we need to let the roots of the real planet take over our life, and not submit to contaminated constraints of society or contemporary lifestyles for, â€Å"he is detached, thus at one with all† where â€Å"he† is detached from societal conformity and thinking and one with all the underlying truth of the world. Intrinsically this universal way to life, that is the Tao, is perfect and flawless from times of sorrow to times of joy because like the Yin and Yang symbol from ancient Chinese culture in life should be in accordance and equilibrium with the natural way of things. Taken as a whole the doctrine of the Tao is to combine with your original and eternal ancestry with this earth and just be. As I have mentioned the Tao is oriented around the union of our individual life and the eternal, ever-constant (in principle), and natural way of the earth. In the marriage of life and the way, the component that we are in control of( and I say control with care because the Tao is not about control or absoluteness it’s about harmony and being taken up with your world) is our personal life and personality. This life right here and now is so important it gets taken for granted and disregarded so often due to the unnatural ways society pushes us. Without this life we wouldn’t have anything, any reality, any fun or depression, no anything. For this basic reason alone our time here in this existence, our life, is our ultimate possession in this life is this life. The opportunity to live purely and purposefully with the planet’s path is what our existence is about is what the Tao Te Ching brings to light and from this truth it can be derived that our life is the our best achievement. A very prominent message that resounds throughout the Tao Te Ching and principles of Taoism is the importance of keeping life basic and rudimentary in operation. This does not mean you are a buffoon and you should do nothing, but interpreted to common language lifestyles should be basic and not enthused by complicated thinking, personality, and actions. Science is a big discrepancy with the Taoist thought pattern, a Tao sage wouldn’t advocate for improvement in sciences. Yet with this in mind, â€Å"Taoists were often scientists of China. Theirs was a different conception of science, based not on the exploration of the underlying laws of phenomena, but on the observation of the behavior of animals, plants, the elements, and the heavens. †, more of a mild consideration for the reality around us and how it corresponds to the natural way things are and how we play a part in it as individuals. When we follow the flow of the Tao we are in sync with nature’s ever pure intentions and a simplistic life separated from convoluted ideals and standards set by humans to live by. To satisfy the Tao we have realized we should not strive for things, material or spiritual, but allow this essence of the world to become us by living in an effortless way. There is a self-gratification to simple living, â€Å" Lao Tzu rejected scientific and technological progress†¦ he wrote that content people enjoy the labor of their hands and don’t waste time inventing labor-saving machines† where we are content and reap the benefits of our work to thrive in unison with the world. In this manner of simplicity life is lived how it was meant to be lived. Tantamount in importance for Taoism is dissent from popularity and splendor in your life. If we are to be simple beings in unity with nature then we should not be crowding our heads with egoistical beliefs that our own supremacy is important. In the grand scheme of this planet we are a miniscule part but a part nonetheless, one who should surrender to the natural course of the world. â€Å"The ten thousand things rise and fall while the Self watches their return. They grow and flourish and then return to source†, as explained by Lao Tzu we go about our business with highs and lows of attitude, status, and life in general but always return to the basis source where we originated from, and so we should avoid trying to raise up and improve because it is unnatural and we will just return to the basis anyway. This life’s peak is unattainable because it is not part of this journey, we shouldn’t even try to achieve the high of our live through improvement of self because we are meant to be simple and just the way we are. To just be as a basic being is to be perfectly purposeful. Our time here on this planet is to accept that the way of the world is the Tao and is the force we adhere, it is the ultimate answer to our world. We live here and now to follow the Tao and be content with our life as it is the most important thing we harbor. It is a basic life but that’s more than okay, we should have a life of no achievements because those could lead ultimately to downfalls and an unnatural course in our life going against the Tao of the world. Always unimportance in ourselves is key if we are to live harmoniously with this planet. Simplicity all around and submitting to the underlying but truly eternal and ultimate flow of the Tao is our purpose here and now, just be, no adjustments, just being. Works Cited Clarke, J. J. The Tao of the West: Western Transformations of Taoist Thought. New York, NewYork: Routledge, 2000. Print Goffman, Ken, Joy, Dan. Counter Culture Through The Ages: From Abraham to Acid House. New York, U. S. A. : Villard Books, 2004. Print Tzu, Lao. Tao Te Ching. China:np,nd. Print Welch, Holmes. Taoism The Parting of the Way. Toronto, Canada: Beacon Paperback, 1966. Print. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Sages, are wise teacher-like people regarded with high level experience and wisdom of the world and its ways. [ 2 ]. The Yin and Yang is a symbol resonating with ancient Chinese philosophy that represent the natural opposites such as dark and light, innovation and conservation, masculine and feminine, as they occur and have to be in balance and coexistence with one another.

Motivational Interviewing as a Treatment for Substance Abuse

Motivational Interviewing as a Treatment for Substance Abuse Introduction Motivational interviewing is an evidenced-based counseling approach that health care providers can use to help patients adhere to treatment recommendations. It emphasizes using a directive, patient-centered style of interaction to promote behavioral change by helping patients explore and resolve ambivalence (Levensky et al., 2007). Motivational interviewing is a highly individualized therapeutic approach that is client centered and encourages clients to explore the reasons for any maladaptive behavior and then make changes. However, it is also a directed form of therapy, so that the counselor takes a more active role than in some forms of client-centered therapy. However, it is not a confrontational form of therapy; rather than engaging in hostile interactions with clients, the counselor takes an empathic approach and helps the client identify areas of ambivalence and make plans to change those areas. 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